Ali Al-Dousari Editor

# Atlas of Fallen Dust in Kuwait

Atlas of Fallen Dust in Kuwait

Ali Al-Dousari Editor

# Atlas of Fallen Dust in Kuwait

Editor Ali Al-Dousari Environment and Life Sciences Research Center (ELSRC) Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR) Kuwait City, Kuwait

ISBN 978-3-030-66976-8 ISBN 978-3-030-66977-5 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66977-5

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# Preface

Kuwait is located within a desert region characterized by active eolian activities. Land degradation and extended drought periods act as major activators of Sand and Dust Storms (SDS) in deserts. There are substantial levels of dust grains that may be driven thousands of kilometers from their origin. Reducing the adverse effects of eolian sand and dust in Kuwait and its surrounding regions is a challenge that requires a full understanding of dust phenomena, both chemically and physically, to improve future effective control measures. In desert regions, some environmental challenges have the potential to reduce solar energy production. These challenges are aerosols and the formation of thinly crusted carbonates and/or mud coatings on the solar panel surfaces that form from fallen dust. These challenges greatly affect wind turbines and photovoltaic panel surfaces in Kuwait. The dust has a negative effect on health, aviation, agricultural production, and the economy. Most recent studies have documented eolian SDS as environmental and economic threats in the region. On the other hand, few studies have focused on these threats as part of the ecological system in desert areas. Mobile sand and dust are a major source of native plant-seed dispersion in the region. The depositional characteristics of radionuclides <sup>7</sup> Be, 210Pb, 40K, and 137Cs indicate that most of the deposited dust in dust traps is a result of re-suspension in Kuwaiti dust. The only thing that can prevent this re-suspension is the presence of dense native vegetation in the area. The environmental and economic importance of native plants and green belts in controlling mobile sand and dust hazards has been addressed by a few studies in the Middle East region. On the other hand, eolian deposits, including dust, play a significant role in the rehabilitation of degraded areas, as they act as a major healing factor because of their content of seeds and organic matter.

The benefits of mobile sand and dust are as follows:

	- a. a protective shield from sandblasting
	- b. a source of nutrients
	- c. for water storage obtained during rain and flood seasons.

This atlas includes most of the information, if not all, related to dust phenomena, such as dust particle size, mineralogy, trace elements, radionuclides, physical properties (particle size and surface area), and associated pollen, organic matter, and pollutants.

Kuwait City, Kuwait Ali Al-Dousari

# Acknowledgments

The authors express their gratitude to the following entities:

	- a. Project ECO41K (Dust Fallout Monitoring and Analysis in Jahra City and its Surroundings)
	- b. General Activity EC055G (Particle-Size Analysis of Seasonal Dust in Kuwait)
	- c. General Activity EC058G (Seasonal Color Spectrophotometric Variations of Dust Samples within Kuwait).

Thanks are extended also to all contributors and to Sayed Ahmed, Mamdouh Khadhayrah, Abu Nour Muhamad, and Khaleq Beg, Teena William for their help with the sample collection and analysis and to Soumya Kannappassen for editing and proofreading.

# Contents


# About the Editor

Prof. Ali Al-Dousari Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, Environmental and Life Science Research Center, Safat, Kuwait.

He is a professor in the Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research Center, Kuwait where he conducts scientific projects and do researches tackling Land degradation and rehabilitation Flood management, Aeolian and fluvial landforms and dust fallout, Mobile sand control measures, water harvesting techniques soil sealing and compaction. He has received many awards and recognitions for his research activities. He won encouraging prizes and awards (The Wildlife Award from the Arabian Gulf Cooperation Council; the Abdul Hameed Shoman Award for Best Arab researchers, the State Incentive Award, the Best Arab Book Award in the field of environment) and acts as Kuwait representation active member within Committee of Science and Technology (CST) in United Nation Committee for Compacting Desertification-UNCCD (2016–2019) and member in many local, regional and global scientific committees. Al-Dousari now is acting as referee and editor in many scientific journals. Al-Dousari receives his Ph.D. in geology from Royal Holloway University of London and Master degree from Kuwait University.

# 1 Dust Storm Satellite Images

Meshari Al-Obed, Sief Uddin, and Ashraf Ramadhan

#### Abstract


M. Al-Obed (&)

Meteorological Unit, Kuwait National Guard, P.O. Box: 17010 72451 Khaldiya, Kuwait e-mail: Dr.Aeolian@gmail.com

S. Uddin A. Ramadhan

Environmental Pollution and Climate Program (EPCP), Environment and Life Sciences Research Center (ELSRC), Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR), P.O. Box: 24885 13109 Safat, Kuwait

– Satellite images from 2000 to 2010 were used to identify major dust trajectories within seven major deserts in the world.

# Introduction

Dust is a common phenomenon in Kuwait. Therefore, understanding dust is a significant step toward adapting control measures in the area to minimize its adverse socioeconomic effects. Dust, traveling long distances, is commonly very fine, with the predominant sizes being between 0.068 mm and 0.02 mm (Walker and Costin 1971). Significant quantities of dust may be blown thousands of kilometers from their source (Meng and Lu 2007; Al-Dabbas et al. 2011; Awadh 2012; Al-Awadhi and Al-Dousari 2013; Al-Dousari and Al-Hazza 2013), and it has been estimated that windblown dust derived from soil erosion contributes approximately 500 106 tons of particulate matter to the atmosphere each year (Peterson and Junge 1971). Northwesterly winds are prevalent in Kuwait, with 18 km/h as the average wind speed (Al-Ghadban et al. 2008; Al-Dousari et al. 2017). Al-Dousari (2009) listed Kuwait as having one of the highest dust precipitation rates in the world. Safar (1980) states that the annual average number of dusty days of dust storms, or rising dust, or suspended dust in Kuwait is 255.4. Al-Dousari and Al-Awadhi (2012) identified five major sources of dust: (1) southwestern desert of Iraq; (2) the Mesopotamian Floodplain in Iraq; (3) the northeastern desert of Saudi Arabia; (4) the drained marshes (Ahwar) area in southern Iraq; and (5) sabkhas, dry marshes, and abandoned farms in Iran, especially in the northern coastal area of the Arabian Gulf (Fig. 1.1). This atlas covers the physical (particle size, particle surface area) and chemical (mineralogy, trace element percentages, and radionuclide contents) characteristics, as well as the pollen contents within

deposited dust to identify its origin and to adapt to such common phenomena in the area, as well as to determine the distribution pattern of the dust fallout.

The dust fallout in Kuwait was monitored continuously to attain the following objectives:


The dust fallout in Kuwait was monitored, and the monthly dust fallout data were recorded. Then, samples were analyzed to study the fallout. Maps were generated to understand the dust fallout distribution, statistical parameters, mineralogy, etc.

# Data

State-of-the-art instruments such as Aerosol Robotic Network (AERONET) stations and the Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) can provide valuable and reliable information about the occurrence of dust events (Al-Dousari et al. 2018a). However, such instruments do not offer lengthy records as monitoring AERONET stations and OMIs have been installed and operational only since 2000. Other

Fig. 1.1 Top left (bottom left) anomalies (mean) of sea level pressure during the minimum spring frequency; top right (bottom left) anomalies (mean) of sea level pressure during the maximum spring frequency.

The images show also the areas of Aleutian low pressure, Azores high pressure, and the western flank of the Siberian high pressure, which are encircled in red, blue, and black, respectively

Aerosol Optical Depth recorders, such as the Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS), provide informative and long dust-event records. Nevertheless, due to the limitations of remote sensing instruments, dust events within the planetary boundary layer cannot be easily detected (Prospero et al. 2002). In addition, the presence of cloud can obscure low-level dust detection. Therefore, 30 years of hourly climate data (recorded between 1983 and 2013) from the Kuwait International Airport weather station (WMO# 40,582 located at 29.22 N, 047.96 E) were used to determine dust-event outbreaks in Kuwait. Within the climate data, a report summarizing the daily weather is included. This summary provides additional information about the occurrence of any weather phenomena, such as dust, haze, or fog. However, most of the daily reports are missing or inaccurate, especially prior to 2004.

Therefore, in this study, dusty conditions are extrapolated from other climate variables, such as visibility, wind speed, and relative humidity (RH). Certain criteria were selected to filter out hourly dust conditions: in Kuwait, the minimum wind speed required to lift dust is between 5.5 and 6 m/s (Wilkerson 1991; Al-Dousari et al. 2018b). In this study, 7.7 m/s is the minimum threshold for wind speeds. This wind speed is the minimum threshold for initiating sandstorms (Wilkerson 1991). Furthermore, RH during dust events ranges from 5 to 45% in the summer and winter, respectively (Al-Dousari et al. 2008). While there is no specific research for this region that states at what particular visibility range dust substantially influences life patterns, the authors, who have local knowledge of the area, conclude that dust events that reduce visibility ranges to less than 4 km affect life patterns. This distance is due to the local deposition of dust in the area, which can cause severe consequences for life patterns. Thus, only hours that recorded visibility less than and equal to 4 km, RH less than and equal to 45%, and wind speeds greater than 7.7 m/s were selected for Kuwait dust storm frequency analysis.

# Methodology

At least one dust event occurs every month in Kuwait. To analyze the dust time series, monthly, annual, and seasonal linear trends are applied. This approach is achieved by

Table 1.1 Dust trend analysis

summing the total number of dusty hours for each month, and then the total number of dusty days for the month is calculated. For example, if the number of dusty hours in December 1990 is 240, then 240/24 = 10 dusty days for December. Then, the monthly, annual, and seasonal total numbers of dusty days are calculated. Subsequently, linear trends are fitted to each of the mentioned time series above to investigate any increase in Kuwait dust frequency. However, this research considers only slopes of linear trends that have 95% confidence interval and above. Boyles and Raman (2003) used the same method when analyzing cli-

mate trends in North Carolina. After obtaining the time scales at which dust conditions have significantly changed over the period of study, the data from only significant time series were sorted in a descending manner. Subsequently, the top and bottom 15th percentile of the selected time scale were chosen. Plots of global pressure anomalies for the selected period of maximum and minimum frequency were produced, which assisted with the investigation of any possible effect caused by the change in global pressure systems on Kuwait dust frequency. For example, if dust-event frequency has significantly increased in the spring season, then the top and bottom five years for the 30-year record of spring are selected. Then, the reanalysis plots of global pressure anomalies of the same years and season are obtained from NCEP/NCAR. The reanalysis plots of the five years that experienced the highest frequency and the five years that experienced the lowest frequency are compared and carefully examined to determine whether there is a possible relationship between any of the global climate indices and the dust frequency. After that, if a potential relationship is detected in the anomaly plots, the correlation between the Kuwait dust index and the selected pressure index is investigated (Table 1.1).

# Results and Discussion

As is evident in the table above, only the spring dust trend is significant for the period of study (significant at 95%). Other than that, dust frequency appears not to have changed in the past 30 years. Therefore, only the spring season data are sorted in a descending manner, and the top and bottom 15th percentiles were selected. The maximum and minimum


Table 1.2 Dust frequency of the spring season in days/season before and after sorting in a descending manner


frequencies of the spring season occurred in 1989, 2008, 2009, 2011, and 2012, and 1985, 1995, 1996, 1998, and 1999, respectively, as displayed in Table 1.2. A plot of global pressure anomalies for 1989, 2008, 2009, 2011, and 2012 is shown in the bottom left (mean pressure for the same period below it), and the plot of global pressure anomalies 1985, 1995, 1996, 1998, and 1999 is shown in the bottom right (mean pressure for the same period below it).

The global pressure anomaly plots reveal that the Azores high-pressure, Siberian high-pressure, and the Aleutian and Icelandic low-pressure systems behave in the opposite mode between the years of maximum and minimum spring season dust frequencies. During the peaks, positive anomalies are observed for the Aleutian low-pressure and Azores high-pressure areas. Meanwhile, negative anomalies were found for the western flank of the Siberian high-pressure and the Icelandic low-pressure areas. During the minimum, the anomalies of the previously mentioned systems are the opposite.

The spring dust frequency is correlated with the Azores high-pressure index, the Icelandic and Aleutian low-pressure indices, and the western flank of the Siberian high-pressure index. These correlation scores are not significant at lag (0, 1, 2, and 3) (not shown). Since the area between the latitudes of 30\* and 65\* N seems to be displaying different modes between the maximum and minimum spring dust frequencies, the NPI\*, which covers the same area, is correlated with the dust index on different time scales. The NPI is significantly correlated (at 95% confidence interval) with dust frequency on an annual time scale, and the spring dust frequency is significantly correlated (at 95% confidence interval) with the winter means NPI (see Table 1.3 for the correlations results).

As there is a possible influence of the NPI on Kuwait dust frequency, further investigation of this factor and regional dust frequency is needed. In addition, Trenberth and Hurrell, James and the National Center for Atmospheric Research Staff postulated that Pacific sea surface temperatures (SSTs), which govern the NPI area, are influenced by tropical SSTs. Thus, the relationship between Kuwait and regional dust frequency and the tropical SST and El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) should be explored.

\*As mentioned by Trenberth and Hurrell (1994), the NPI is the area-weighted sea level pressure over the region 30°N– 65°N, 160°E–140°W. The NPI measures interannual to decadal variations in the atmospheric circulation. The dominant atmosphere–ocean relation in the North Pacific is one in which atmospheric changes lead to changes in SSTs by one to two months. However, strong ties exist with events in the tropical Pacific, with changes in tropical Pacific SSTs leading SSTs in the North Pacific by three months.

(https://climatedataguide.ucar.edu/climate-data/northpacific-np-index-trenberth-and-hurrell-monthly-and-winter).

# Satellite Images Use for PM2.5 Estimation

Dust storm episodes are among the most critical weather phenomena in arid countries worldwide (Al-Awadhi 2005; Chi et al. 2008; Garrison et al. 2006). These episodes are caused by high-energy winds eroding the topsoil in regions with minimal vegetation cover. Kuwait and other countries

Year NPI annual means Annual dust freq. Year NPI winter means Spring dust freq. 1984 1011.6 20.3 1984 1007.12 2.63 1985 1014.2 13.1 1985 1008.33 0.38 1986 1010.8 11.2 1986 1001.25 0.96 1987 1010.9 17.0 1987 1003.22 2.67 1988 1011.9 11.2 1988 1006.36 2.79 1989 1014.6 23.0 1989 1011.80 5.58 1990 1013.8 7.0 1990 1010.11 1.38 1991 1012.3 6.0 1991 1007.45 1.25 1992 1011.4 5.7 1992 1004.54 1.50 1993 1012.2 5.6 1993 1008.79 1.50 1994 1013.4 9.7 1994 1008.51 2.00 1995 1011.5 3.6 1995 1004.73 0.29 1996 1012.2 1.6 1996 1005.32 0.33 1997 1011.5 9.5 1997 1005.36 0.96 1998 1011.7 0.6 1998 1003.10 0.17 1999 1013.2 4.1 1999 1008.74 0.92 2000 1012.4 12.6 2000 1008.33 3.50 2001 1011.9 4.2 2001 1004.90 1.08 2002 1012.3 4.5 2002 1008.24 1.25 2003 1011.9 11.8 2003 1003.45 3.50 2004 1011.4 6.0 2004 1003.56 1.17 2005 1012.1 9.2 2005 1007.10 1.38 2006 1013.6 8.2 2006 1007.29 1.54 2007 1011.8 7.9 2007 1007.21 2.33 2008 1013.3 22.8 2008 1008.58 5.29 2009 1014.2 16.6 2009 1013.04 3.92 2010 1011.9 9.6 2010 1003.13 3.13 2011 1013.2 18.7 2011 1010.83 4.42 2012 1013.3 18.7 2012 1007.75 6.71 2013 1013.4 11.5 2013 1008.45 2.71 C = 0.38 2.15 C = 0.423 2.475

Table 1.3 On the left is the annual mean values of dust frequency in days and the North Pacific Index (NPI) with the correlation and t-test value; on the right is the correlation between winter mean NPI values and spring dust frequency values in days

in the Middle East experience some of the worst dust storm episodes in the world. Kuwait is particularly susceptible to dust storms because of its low topography, scant vegetative cover, and strong, turbulent winds that occur mainly in the summer months (Al-Awadhi 2005; Ahmed and Al-Dousari 2013; Al-Awadhi et al. 2014). The rates of dust fallout in Kuwait have been reported as being among the highest in the world (Foda et al. 1985), with mean monthly concentrations as high as 1400 µg m−<sup>3</sup> .

It is possible to trace the origin of dust and its transport pathway from the nature of the particulate matter (PM). The frequency of dust activity can be related to long- and short-term climate changes (Prasad and Singh 2007). Climatic processes can also be affected by dust events (Boucher and Haywood 2001). Air temperatures, for example, may be altered by dust as a result of the scattering and absorption of solar radiation (Li et al. 1996; Moulin et al. 1997; Alpert et al. 1998; Miller and Tegen 1998; Goudie and Middleton 2001). Suspended dust modifies the short-wave solar radiation transmitted through to the earth and long-wave infrared radiation emitted into space (Goudie and Middleton 2001). Moreover, the size and type of aerosol have a major influence on radiation, in addition to cloud cover and surface albedo. Massive dust storms have been reported to result in the lowering of ocean temperatures, which may affect the primary productivity of seas and oceans (Pierson et al. 2003) and impact carbon dioxide sequestration (Ridgwell 2002). This study utilized satellite data to estimate atmospheric aerosol, especially PM2.5, which has been reported to have a significant effect on human health (Dockery et al. 1993; Pope and Dockery 2006; Pope et al. 2002) and on the regional and global climatic changes (Hansen et al. 1998; Hurtado et al. 1996; Ramanathan et al. 2007; Hu et al. 2010). Several reports have indicated that dust serves as a vehicle for the long-range transport of associated contaminants, including viruses (Griffin 2007; Reynolds and Pepper 2000; Williamson et al. 2003; Yates and Yates 1988), pathogens (Garrison et al. 2006; Griffin 2007; Griffin et al. 2002), trace metals (Di-Lella et al. 2006), and organic pollutants (Di-Lella et al. 2006; Gevao et al. 2011).

# Remote Sensing-Based Measurements

Remote sensing measurements, by virtue of their synoptic monitoring capabilities, can be used to quantify dust on a large spatiotemporal scale. Currently, the Multiangle Imaging Spectro Radio Meter (MISR), which can determine AERO-NET's observations in desert regions (AOD) over land and ocean surfaces through observing visible and infrared wavelengths (King et al. 1992, 1999; Kaufman et al. 1997; Diner et al. 1998, 2002; Kahn et al. 1998, 2005a, b; Liu et al. 2004, 2005, 2007, 2009; Hu et al. 2010), was used. Images over Kuwait and adjacent areas were procured from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The relationship between MISR AOD and surface PM2.5 was established. The PM2.5 data were correlated using in situ measurements at two calibration sites: one in Abdalli and the other at the KISR Shuwaikh. A high degree of correlation was observed between the MISR AOD and the PM2.5 estimates. However, the relationship is empirical due to the complicated dependence on multiple factors, including aerosol chemistry, particulate size distribution, aerosol profile, and, most importantly, the atmospheric conditions. The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) has fewer and poorer retrievals over Kuwait because of high surface albedo. However, with the Collection 6 data, the problem was solved, and now MODIS is a more useful sensor for PM retrieval. The satellite-based measurements used AOD as a quantitative measure of PM abundance in the atmospheric column. AOD is dominated by near-surface emission sources and can be used to track long-range dust transport pathways caused by a storm event (Seinfeld and Pandis 1998). AOD retrieved at visible wavelengths is sensitive to 0.1–2 lm particle sizes (Kahn and Braverman 1998) and is not affected by gaseous co-pollutants, providing a noisy measurement of fine PM loading over large spatial areas.

The methodology proposed by Liu et al. (2004) for PM estimation using MISR data was used. The method demonstrates the validity of the MISR AOT with standard ground-level aerosol optical thickness (AOT) measurement from the AERONET. The sensitivity of the MISR AOT measurements from 0.05 to 2.0 µm has also been reported (Kahn et al. 2001; Liu et al. 2005; Hu et al. 2010). Field validation of the PM2.5 retrievals from the satellite datasets was carried out at Abdalli and KISR's Shuwaikh campus on a weekly basis over the past 36 months. The samples were collected using a high-volume air sampler (HVAS) fitted with a six-stage cascade impactor. The metrological parameters, such as mixing height, RH, air temperature, and wind speed, which could affect PM2.5 retrievals using AOD, were also accounted for. The rapid update cycle (RUC) model of the Earth System Research (ERS) group was used to integrate the various metrological data sources.

The MISR's aerosol retrieval algorithms do not depend on explicit radiometric surface properties (Martonchik et al. 2004, 16,102—pp. 1–4, American Geophysical Union). Therefore, the MISR can retrieve aerosol properties over a variety of terrain conditions, including highly reflective surfaces such as found in Kuwait. Observing continuously at nine distinct zenith angles and in four narrow spectral bands centered at 446, 558, 672, and 866 nm The MISR repeats its measurements every 16 days in a tropical region. Version 22 MISR aerosol data were used, which have a spatial resolution of 17.6 km. "In this dataset, there are 74 different aerosol mixtures that are constructed from up to three of the eight

Note that Components 8 and 14 have the same mass distributions by size as Component 2, and the distributions of Components 6 and 21 are nearly identical in the plotted size range (Fig. 1.2).

Fig. 1.2 Mass size distribution for the MISR aerosol components ( source https://edg.larc.nasa.gov/)

pre-defined aerosol components (i.e., Components 1, 2, 3, 6, 8, 14, 19, and 21)" (Liu et al. 2009, IEEE, p. 177) (Fig. 1.2).

Each MISR aerosol component is defined by size distribution, shape, and single scattering albedo, of which two (Components 19 and 21) are designed for dust particles. "A detailed discussion of MISR data structure, the aerosol components used to construct the aerosol models and the percentage contribution of each component to total AOD as given elsewhere" (Liu et al. 2009, IEEE, 177). The MISR aerosol data covering Kuwait and the surrounding areas from 2008 to 2014 were processed. The data were downloaded from the NASA Langley Research Center (LARC) Atmospheric Sciences Data Center.

MISR AOD Validation in the Gulf Region. It has been demonstrated that MISR AOD compares well with AERO-NET's observations in desert regions (Martonchik et al. 2004). We conducted a more comprehensive validation of MISR AOD in the region. The following AERONET sites (Abu Al Bukhoosh, Bahrain, Abu Dhabi, Dhadnah, Hamim, Kuwait University, Mezaira, Mussafa, Solar Village) were identified in the study region with at least one year of operation time. These AERONET data were downloaded from the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (https:// aeronet.gsfc.nasa.gov/). MISR AOD maps were generated for the area (Figs. 1.3 and 1.4).

# Sampling and Particulate Quantification

The sampling campaign was initiated in April 2012. Sizesegregated aerosol samples were collected using a six-stage high-volume cascade impactor (Tisch Environmental, Inc) on the premises of the KISR (29° 20.227 N; 47° 54.208 E) and Abdalli (30<sup>o</sup> 02.312 N; 47° 49.589E). The sampler was located about 2 m above the ground. Over each 24 h sampling period, approximately 815 ± 5 m3 of air was drawn through the cascade impactor at a constant flow rate of 0.855 m3 /min to trap various aerodynamic particles on different filters. The particles were separated into the aerodynamic diameter (Dp) size ranges, such as the following: < 0.39 (backup high-volume filter), 0.39 to 0.69, 0.69 to 1.3, 1.3 to 2.1, 2.1 to 4.2, 4.2 to 10.2, and >10.2 µm. In addition to the weekly sampling, the samples were also collected on all dusty days to capture the spatiotemporal variations in the PM concentrations.

In addition to the in situ HVAS sampling, a noninvasive infrared (IR)-based measurement was conducted for both the particulate count and the particulate mass determination using a Metone AEROCET 531 particle mass profiler and counter, which takes hourly measurements and logs the data in the built-in data logger.

# Calibration of Field and Laboratory Equipment

Air volumes for each sample collected were determined using a flowmeter with a flow tantalizer, in addition to a Magnehelic gauge (Tisch Environmental, Inc.). Calibrations were done in accordance with the manufacturer's guidelines. The calibrations were performed upon the installation of the sampler, and at least once every quarter.

# Model Development for PM2.5 Estimation

Given the scarcity of ground-level PM2.5 measurements in the study region, a technique that can estimate regional PM2.5 concentrations without ground data support becomes an important tool. The MISR has eight aerosol components that are indicative of different contributions to ground-level PM2.5 concentrations: total MISR column AOD was

Fig. 1.4 AOD map for the study area corresponding to 01 September 2008

deconstructed into species-related fractions using the AOD value associated with, and the three aerosol components defined by, each of the 74 aerosol mixtures (Eq. 1.1). The fractional AOD of an MISR aerosol component is defined as the average contribution of this component to total AOD. For example, if the MISR does not observe the presence of any dust particles in a 17.6-km pixel, the fractional AODs for dust components (i.e., 19 and 21) would be zero. By definition, the sum of all the significant fractional AODs is equal to the total column AOD.

$$\text{Fractional AOD}\_{l(l=1, \S)} = \frac{\sum\_{j=1}^{74} \text{AOD}\_{\text{mixsure}} \dots \times \text{Fractional}\_{\text{component } l \text{ in mixue}}}{\text{No. of Successful Mixture}} \tag{1.1}$$

Then, the simulated AOD and PM2.5 concentrations from the GEOS-Chem model were used to define a physically consistent relationship between AOD and surface level PM2.5 concentrations (Eq. 1.2). GC surface [PM2.5] in Eq. 1.2 refers to the sum of GEOS-Chem fine particle species concentrations within 1 km from the surface, and GC column dust AOD refers to the sum of GEOS-Chem total AOD in all 35 layers. A similar analysis for dust particles was performed.

$$\begin{aligned} \text{[PM2.5]} &= \frac{\text{GC Surface} \,\text{[PM2.5]}}{\text{GC Column AOD}} \times \text{MISR AOD} \\ \text{[Dust]} &= \frac{\text{GC Surface} \,\text{[Dust]}}{\text{GC Column Dust AOD}} \times \text{MISR dust AOD} \end{aligned} (1.2)$$

This technique has been demonstrated previously using the early-version MISR and GEOS-Chem data in the United States (US) (Liu et al. 2004) and was successfully utilized in this present study. The annual MISR PM2.5 concentrations exhibited an improved agreement with the ground measurements regarding the spatial pattern when compared with simulated PM2.5 concentrations. The annual average MISR PM2.5 concentrations had a good linear relationship with ground measurements (r = 0.69, linear regression slope = 0.87), and the estimated intercept was insignificant (p = 0.81).

High-resolution spatial statistical models were developed using ground PM2.5 measurements from the two sites in the study region and Collection 6 MODIS 10-km AOD data. Given the limited ground data support (one site in Abdalli, KISR, and Wafra each), a linear mixed effects model was developed similar to, but more advanced. This random intercept, random slope model is expressed as follows:

$$\begin{array}{c} \left[ \text{PM2.5} \right]\_{i,j} = \left( \alpha + \mu\_{j} \right) + \left( \beta\_{1} + \nu\_{j} \right) \\ \quad \times \text{MODIS AOD}\_{i,j} + \left( \beta\_{2} + \alpha\_{j} \right) \\ \quad \times \text{MODIS AOD}\_{i,j-1} + \varepsilon\_{i,j} \end{array} \tag{1.3}$$

where [PM2.5]i,<sup>j</sup> is the daily PM2.5 concentration at monitoring site i on day j; MODIS AODi,<sup>j</sup> is the average of Collection 6 Terra and Aqua MODIS AOD in the 10 km 10 km grid cell corresponding to monitoring site i on day j; a and uj are the fixed and random intercepts, respectively; b<sup>1</sup> and vj are the fixed and random slopes on same day AOD, respectively; b<sup>2</sup> and x<sup>j</sup> are the fixed and random slopes on previous day AOD, respectively; <sup>e</sup><sup>i</sup>;<sup>j</sup> <sup>N</sup> <sup>0</sup>; <sup>r</sup><sup>2</sup> ð Þ is the error term at site i and on day j. In this statistical model, the AOD fixed effect represents the average effect of AOD on PM2.5 for all study days. The AOD random effects explain the daily variability in the PM2.5-AOD relationship. Given the limited number of monitoring sites, a random intercept was not included for the site.

Since no previous studies have been conducted on desert regions, another statistical model format was explored. A generalized additive model (Liu et al. 2009) was tried also (Eq. 1.4):

$$\text{PM}\_{2.5} = \text{N}\begin{pmatrix} \mu + f\_{\text{AOD}}(\text{AOD}) + f\_{\text{AOD}2}(\text{AOD}\_{\text{lag}}) + f\_{\text{RH}}(\text{RH}) + f\_{\text{TEMP}}(\text{TEMP})\\ + \beta\_1 \times \text{precip} + \beta\_2 \times \text{precip}\_{\text{lag}} + \beta\_3 \times \text{weekend} \end{pmatrix} \tag{1.4}$$

where all the covariates on the right-hand side of Eq. (1.3) are averaged spatially and, therefore, only vary with time; l is the model intercept; fAOD(AOD) is the smooth regression term describing the association between AOD and PM2.5; fAOD2(AOD\_lag) is the smooth regression term describing the association between mean AOD of the previous two days and PM2.5; fRH(RH) and fTEMP(TEMP) are smooth regression terms describing the impact of domain-averaged RH and surface air temperature (TEMP) on the AOD–PM2.5 association, respectively. The inclusion of the lag AOD term reflects the fact that urban aerosol has a general lifetime of a few days without major scavenging events. Precipitation on a given day (precip) and precipitation on the previous day (precip\_lag) are both modeled as a binary variable (0 = no rain, 1 = rain). The weekend effect is reflected here as a binary variable (weekend = 1 if Friday and Saturday, = 0 otherwise).

The PM2.5 concentrations were estimated using the models developed (Fig. 1.5), which indicated a high correlation with the point measurements. The total suspended PM in each size fraction measured at the sampling site at the KISR between April and October 2012 are displayed in Fig. 1.6, whereas the time series plot of the total suspended particulate matter (TSP) over the same period is expressed in Fig. 1.7. A summary of the particle-size distribution for the entire study period, expressed as the average particle concentration in each size range, is in Fig. 1.8. The mean (and range) in TSP concentrations for the entire study period was 1400 (140–8500) lg/m<sup>3</sup> . If the concentrations measured on the 6th of March are excluded, as this sample was collected during a major dust storm episode in Kuwait, the mean (and range) in TSP that is typical for this site would be 1040 (140–2750) lg/m<sup>3</sup> . The TSP concentrations in this study were higher than those reported in Chicago (27.7 lg/m<sup>3</sup> ) and Lake Michigan in the USA (Offenberg and Baker 1999); Mumbai (119–216 lg/m<sup>3</sup> ), (Venkataraman et al. 1999); rural Taiwan (182–238 lg/m<sup>3</sup> ) (Wu et al. 2006); Thessaloniki in Greece (243 lg/m<sup>3</sup> ) (Chrysikou et al. 2009); and in Hamilton, Ontario Canada (58–121 lg/m<sup>3</sup> ) (Katz and Chan 1980). These high TSP values measured in Kuwait may be due, in part, to the fact that Kuwait is a desert country where high-energy winds often result in localized or regional dust storms. The rates of dust fallout in Kuwait have been reported as one of the highest in the world (Foda et al. 1985). The particle-size distribution was bimodal, with the major peak located in the <0.63-lm fraction, constituting about 85% (range 44–94%) of the PM in the air. Another small but distinct peak occurred in the particle-size fraction >10 lm. Particles smaller than 3.0 lm are easily transported through the respiratory tract into the bronchioles and alveoli of the lungs and are, thus, a human health risk.

Fig. 1.5 PM2.5 concentrations using satellite datasets

One of the most important indicators of air quality in most industrialized countries in the world, according to the World Health Organization (WHO), is the concentration of PM in the air (WHO 2005). These standards, however, often ignore the concentrations of toxic compounds, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), trace metals, and other contaminants, some of which are carcinogens, that are associated with these particles. This ignoring may be due to inadequate information on the concentrations of the associated contaminants that are required for risk assessments. Several studies have found that an inverse relationship exists between particle size and pollutant concentration (Lewis et al. 1999). The inhalable (<10 µm) and respirable (<2.5 µm) fractions of PM, which remain suspended in the air the longest, are thought to be the most essential fractions associated with respiratory illnesses. Many studies have linked long-term exposure to PM with adverse health effects, such as cardiovascular disease, chronic respiratory illnesses,

Fig. 1.7 Total suspended particle concentrations in different impactor size ranges in the air at the KISR in Kuwait City between April and August 2012

and cancer. To comprehend better the risks posed by particle inhalation, it is important to understand the distribution of pollutants in various size fractions.

0

This study developed a basic model framework and setup that can be populated by continuous data collection using both an HVAS and an AEROCET particle counter. The accuracy of the MISR revealed a systematic underestimate, which, using additional data, can be integrated into the model. The calibration of Collection 6 for MODIS also provides an additional opportunity to use MODIS as a reliable satellite for PM estimation. The PM2.5 concentrations from the satellite images correlated well with the measured

TSP < 0.69 µm 0.69 - 1.3 µm 1.3 - 2.1 µm 2.1 - 4.2 µm 4.2 - 10.2 µm > 10.2 µm

**Particle size range**

data, both from the IR mass and particle counter and the HVAS. The accuracy of the MISR determination was close to 68 and 62% for MODIS. There is currently a systematic underestimation of PM using both the MISR and the MODIS data, possibly due to very high backscatter. Nevertheless, these sensors provide a very reasonable estimate of PM2.5 concentrations on a large spatiotemporal scale.

# Dust Storm Trajectories

Dust deposition rates were monitored and analyzed in Kuwait in the northern Arabian Gulf to estimate quantities of fallen dust within major dust trajectories in the Gulf. Eight major dust storm trajectories around the Gulf were detected using satellite images (2000–2010) and weather data. The Arabian Gulf receives about 120 tons.km<sup>2</sup> annually of fallen dust. The amount of fallen dust from these major trajectories into the Gulf is estimated at 30 million tons. yr−<sup>1</sup> , by water volume. There are 4886 tons in each cubic kilometer. In comparison with other seas and oceans, the amount of dust deposited in the Gulf in reference to water body volume is the highest. The particle-size distribution of coastal dust is trimodal, with a dominance of coarse silt (19%), medium silt (18%), fine silt (16%), and clay (21%), with a minor amount of very coarse silt (9%), very fine silt (6%), and sand (11%). Mineralogically, the dust is composed mainly of carbonates (41%) and quartz (29%), with an appreciable amount of feldspars (11%). The mineralogical composition and particle surface area illustrate slight physical and mineralogical variations between dust fallout samples in the Arabian Gulf (Fig. 1.9).

# Dust Storms

Kuwait is surrounded by major, rather than intermediate, dust source areas. In this study, these regional sources of dust were identified, and satellite-derived data were used to identify temporal and spatial variations in their emission intensities. These five major sources of dust are1.10:

Fig. 1.9 Directions and timing of major dust trajectories with sampling sites in the Arabian Gulf

# Fig. 1.10 Major and

intermediate source areas of dust storms and trajectories for the northwestern areas of the Arabian Gulf, including the study area in reference to dust storm days in Kuwait and satellite images from 2000 to 2010


Furthermore, four intermediate sources of dust storm trajectories (covering areas of less than 3000 km<sup>2</sup> ) were identified as follows:


# Dust Zone Areas

Satellite images from 2000 to 2010 were used to identify major dust trajectories in seven major deserts worldwide. The fallen dust from these trajectories was collected and analyzed. Fallen dust rates tend to be lower downwind. The average samples of the world's fallen dust are negatively skewed, trimodal, and with a dominance of silt size fractions (61%). Most of the fallen dust within major dust trajectories is fining downwind. The fallen dust from the eastern zones (Taklimakan, Gobi, and Australian deserts) are characterized by higher percentages of feldspars and clay minerals, and low carbonate content and grain surface area in comparison with the western zones (Sahara and Arabian deserts). The Western Sahara Desert dust has the highest depositional rates and average quartz percentage (66%). The dust samples in this zone contain low carbonates and grain surface area

Fig. 1.11 Major dust storm trajectories within the seven zones, showing the desert sand seas, major dust trajectories, and sample locations. (1: Sous Masa, 2: Biougra, 3: Diarnena, 4: Bawku, 5: Tripoli, 6 & 7 south Tripoli, 8: Crete, 9: Cairo, 10: Hurghada, 11: Wadi

when compared with dust from the Eastern Sahara Desert. The dust samples within the Northern Arabia and the Ethiopian-South Arabia zones contain the highest average amounts of carbonate and grain surface area (Fig. 1.11).

# Satellite Images

An exotic occasion of the coalition of two dust storms to form a bidirectional dust storm, one blowing from northern Arabia and the Western Desert of Iraq toward Kuwait, and the second from the southern Mesopotamian Floodplain toward the Arabian Gulf on the 11th of February 2009. These types of dust storm trajectories take a wider form, with the area covered by the storm being more than 3000 km<sup>2</sup> . The northwestern dust storm has large trajectories that normally blow in January, February, March, April, June, September, and October. Furthermore, moderate dust storm trajectories that cover an area less than 3000 km<sup>2</sup> are familiar in March, May, June, July, and August. In the northwesterly trajectories, fallen dust is brighter in color,

Dawasir, 12: Fahal, 13: Ain, 14: Dubai, 15: Riyadh, 16: Manama, 17 and 18: Kuwait, 19: Um Qasr, 20: Amman, 21: Dead Sea, 22: Lahore, 23: Taklimakan, 24: Ejin, 25: Shapotou, 26: Beijing, 27: Andong, 28: Tokyo, 29 and 30: Bald Hill)

coarser in size fraction, with more sand particles (diameter ranges between 0.063 and 2 mm), contains more quartz and feldspars, but has fewer carbonates and clay minerals, lower particle surface area, and less iron and organic matter in comparison with trajectories from the Iranian side and the Mesopotamian Floodplain. On the other hand, dust from the northern and northeastern trajectories is finer, darker in color, contains less quartz and feldspars, is higher content in carbonates, heavy and clay minerals, is lower in surface area, and provides more organic matter compared with other trajectories around Kuwait. These dust storm trajectories normally occur in January, April, May, June, July, August, and, rarely, in February. The following weather data were recorded for 11th February 2009 (Fig. 1.12):


Fig. 1.12 MODIS image of dust storm that originated from the Western Desert of Iraq, covering southern Iraq, Kuwait, and northern Arabian Gulf on 11th February 2009

# Satellite Images

The southeast, east-southeast, and east wind directions unidirectional dust storm blowing toward northeastern Arabia, including Kuwait and the northern Arabian Gulf on the 17th February 2009 from intermediate dust sources. This type of dust storm trajectory has moderate wind speed and forms in source areas with a short distance, is covered by a trajectory that is less than 3000 km<sup>2</sup> in size, and the level of suspended dust particles is not as dense as in storms from the Arabian deserts. This type of dust storm trajectory normally blows in March, April, May, June, and October. The fallen dust from this type of trajectory is deposited more quickly than normal as it contains more quartz and feldspars but fewer carbonates and clay minerals, has a lower particle surface area, and lower iron and organic matter content that is brighter and coarser in size fraction, and sand particles are more than in trajectories from the Mesopotamian Floodplain. The following weather data were recorded for 17th February 2009 (Fig. 1.13):


# Satellite Images

Tridirectional dust storm: northwest, west-northwest, and west wind directions toward Kuwait from Western Desert of Iraq on 28th February 2009 toward the Arabian Gulf. This type of storm takes the broad form of dust storm trajectories in which the area covered is more than 3000 km<sup>2</sup> . This form is also associated with storm clouds. The northwest, northwest-west, and west dust storm large trajectories normally blow in January, February, March, April, June, September, and October. Furthermore, intermediate dust

Fig. 1.13 MODIS image of dust storm that originated from the Western Desert of Iraq, covering southern Iraq, Kuwait and northern Arabian Gulf on 17th February 2009

storm trajectories are familiar in March, May, June, July, and August. With the northwesterly trajectories, fallen dust is brighter in color, coarser in mean size fraction sand particles (diameter more than 0.063 mm), and contains more quartz and feldspars, but has fewer carbonates and clay minerals, a lower particle surface area, and less iron and organic matter than trajectories from the Mesopotamian Floodplain. The following weather data were recorded on 28th February 2009 (Fig. 1.14):


# Satellite Images

A unidirectional dust storm blew from northern Arabia and the Western Desert of Iraq toward Kuwait on 2nd March 2009. This type of dust storm trajectory takes a wider form, covering an area of 3000 km2 , but sometimes it occurs on a smaller scale and is seasonally known as Subag Sarayat, which extends from early March until the 28th April. The large trajectories of the northwestern dust storm normally blow in January, February, March, April, June, September, and October. Furthermore, moderate dust storm trajectories that cover an area of less than 3000 km<sup>2</sup> are familiar in March, May, June, July, and August. Fallen dust of the northwesterly trajectories is brighter in color and coarser in size fraction, with more sand particles, more quartz and

Fig. 1.14 MODIS image of dust storm that originated from the Western Desert of Iraq covering southern Iraq, Kuwait, and northern Arabian Gulf on 28th February 2009

feldspars, but fewer carbonates and clay minerals, lower particle surface area, and less iron and organic matter than trajectories from the Mesopotamian Floodplain or those coming from marches in Iraq and Iran. This trajectory is also expected to have fewer microorganisms. The following weather data were recorded for 2nd March 2009 (Fig. 1.15):


# Satellite Images

Bidirectional dust storms: one blowing from southern Iraq toward the Arabian Gulf in an arrow-shaped dust storm trajectory on 10th March 2009, while the second is blowing from the northeast. The trajectory diverted its direction from above the Arabian Gulf toward Arabia. This type of dust storm trajectory takes the wider form and is part of the Subag Sarayat season that extends from early March until 28th April. The northwestern dust storm large trajectories usually blow in January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September, and October. The northeastern trajectories' fallen dust is darker in color, finer in size fraction, with fewer sand particles, and contains more clay and carbonates but has fewer quartz and feldspar minerals, as well as larger values of particle surface area, and higher percentages of iron and organic matter than other trajectories. Weather data collected on 10th March 2009 were as follows (Fig. 1.16):


Fig. 1.15 MODIS image of dust storm that originated from the Western Desert of Iraq covering southern Iraq, Kuwait, and northern Arabian Gulf on 2 March 2009

# Satellite Images

This unidirectional dust storm blew from the northern Arabian Gulf toward Kuwait on the 13th March 2009. This type of dust storm trajectory takes the wider form with a low wind speed. These northern dust storm large trajectories blow normally in January, March, April, May, June, July, August, and October. The northern trajectories' fallen dust contains higher percentages of iron and organic matter than other trajectories. Weather data collected on 13th March 2009 were as follows (Fig. 1.17):


# Satellite Images

This unidirectional dust storm blew from northern Arabia and the Western Desert of Iraq toward Kuwait on 14th May 2009. This type of dust storm trajectory takes the wider form and blows normally in January, February, March, April, June, September, and October. Furthermore, moderate dust storm trajectories are familiar in March, May, June, July, and August. The northwesterly trajectories' fallen dust is coarser in size fraction, with sand particles (diameter more than 0.063 mm) containing more quartz and feldspars minerals, a smaller particle surface area, and less iron and organic matter than trajectories from the Mesopotamian Floodplain. Weather data collected on 14th May 2009 were as follows (Fig. 1.18):


Fig. 1.16 MODIS image of dust storm that originated from the Western desert of Iraq, covering southern Iraq, Kuwait, and northern Arabian Gulf on 10th March 2009

• The northwest, west-northwest, and west wind directions represent 17.3%, 31.5%, and 15.5%, respectively, of the total hourly wind count for that day.

# Satellite Images

Moderate wind speed caused a unidirectional dust storm blowing from northern Arabia and the Western Desert of Iraq toward Kuwait on 15th May 2009. The northwestern dust storm large trajectories are affected by wind from the southwest. Moderate dust storm trajectories that cover less than 3000 km<sup>2</sup> of the area are most likely in March, May, June, July, and August. The northwesterly trajectories' fallen dust is brighter in color, coarser in size fraction, with sand particles (diameter more than 0.063 mm) containing more quartz and feldspars but fewer carbonates and clay minerals, with a lower particle surface area, and less iron and organic matter than north and northeastern trajectories. The associated pollen with these types of dust trajectories originates mainly from Haloxylon sp. and Cyperus sp., native plants that were transferred a short distance from regional source areas. Weather data collected on the 15th May 2009 were as follows (Fig. 1.19):


Fig. 1.17 MODIS image of dust storm that originated from the Western Desert of Iraq, covering southern Iraq, Kuwait and northern Arabian Gulf on 13th March 2009

# Satellite Images

This unidirectional dust storm blew from the southwest toward Kuwait in the on 16th May 2009. This type of dust storm trajectory takes the wider form and normally blows in March, April, May, June, and October. Fallen dust from the southwesterly trajectories is brighter in color, coarser in size fraction, with more sand particles, causing dust deposits to accumulate quickly. Such dust contains more quartz and feldspars but fewer carbonates and clay minerals, a lower particle surface area, and a smaller percentage of iron and organic matter than other trajectories. Weather data collected on 16th May 2009 were as follows (Fig. 1.20):


• The southwest, west-southwest, and west wind directions represent 12.1%, 19.1%, and 31.8%, respectively, of the total hourly wind count for that day.

# Satellite Images

A small unidirectional dust storm with an arrow shape blowing from the Mesopotamian Floodplain, particularly from the Samawa region in Iraq, toward Kuwait on 2nd July 2009. This type of dust storm trajectory has a moderate size form that covers an area less than 3000 km<sup>2</sup> and is familiar in March, May, June, July, and August. The northwesterly trajectories' fallen dust is darker in color, smaller in size fraction, with fewer sand particles that contain more carbonates and clay minerals but less quartz and feldspars, has a larger the particle surface area, and higher percentages of

Fig. 1.18 MODIS image of dust storm that originated from the Western Desert of Iraq, covering southern Iraq, Kuwait, and the northern Arabian Gulf on 14th May 2009

iron and organic matter than other trajectories. Weather data obtained on 2nd July 2009 were as follows (Fig. 1.21):


# Satellite Images

The same dust storm that blew on 2nd July continued for a second day but at a higher wind speed. The storm took the form of an arrow shape, was unidirectional, and covered small areas. It blew from the Mesopotamian Floodplain, particularly from the Samawa region in Iraq, Bubiyan Island, and Sabiya in Kuwait, toward the Arabian Gulf on 3rd July 2009. This type of dust storm trajectory has a moderate size, covers an area of less than 3000 km<sup>2</sup> , and is familiar in March, May, June, July, and August. The northwesterly trajectories' fallen dust is darker in color, smaller in size fraction, with fewer sand particles, contains more carbonates and clay minerals, has a larger particle surface area, and high percentages of iron and organic matter compared with the other trajectories. The weather data collected on 3rd July 2009 were as follows (Fig. 1.22):


Fig. 1.19 MODIS image of dust storm that originated from the Western Desert of Iraq, covering southern Iraq, Kuwait, and the northern Arabian Gulf on 15th May 2009

# Satellite Images

A transition zone of an intermediate dust storm into a wide dust storm form that covers an area of more than 3000 km<sup>2</sup> blowing from the Mesopotamian Floodplain, mainly from the Samawa and Ahwar regions in Iraq, toward Kuwait and the Arabian Gulf on 29th July 2009. This type of dust storm trajectory is familiar in March, May, June, July, and August. The northwesterly trajectories' fallen dust is darker in color, smaller in size fraction, with fewer sand particles, contains more carbonates and clay minerals, has a larger particle surface area, and a high percentage of iron and organic matter when compared with other trajectories. The following weather data were recorded for 29th July 2009 (Fig. 1.23):

• The local prevailing wind direction (northwest, west-northwest, west) agreed with that deduced from the image over the area of the State of Kuwait;

• The northwest, west-northwest, and west wind directions represent 22.9%, 37.5%, and 27.1%, respectively, of the total hourly wind count for that day.

# Satellite Images

Two dust storm trajectories taking the form of arrow-shapes, indicating high wind speed. This form is a moderate size that covers an area of less than 3000 km<sup>2</sup> and predominantly occurs in July but is familiar in March, May, June, and August. It is a unidirectional form blowing from the Mesopotamian Floodplain, particularly from the Samawa and Hur Suwaiga regions in Iraq, Bubiyan Island, and Subiyah in Kuwait, toward the Arabian Gulf on 15th August 2009. The northwesterly trajectories' fallen dust is characterized by more carbonates and higher clay mineral percentages, is

Fig. 1.20 MODIS image of dust storm that originated from the Western Desert of Iraq, covering southern Iraq, Kuwait, and the northern Arabian Gulf on 16th May 2009

darker in color, smaller in size fraction, with more mud particles, larger in particle surface area, and has high percentages of iron and organic matter in comparison with other trajectories. The following weather data were recorded on 15th August 2009 (Fig. 1.24):


than 1000 m, it is considered a clear indicator of dust storms. This day showed low visibility (less than 1000 m) despite the non-occurrence of dust, which indicates that depending only on visibility as an indicator of dust storms is incorrect. The following weather data were recorded on 6th January 2010 (Fig. 1.25):


# Satellite Images

This image shows that no dust storm has occurred, which indicates that visibility is not a good indicator for dust storms, as visibility can be low due to fog, rain, smog, and humidity, rather than dust. Ordinarily, when visibility is less

# Satellite Images

A massive dust storm blowing from the Sahara Desert in northern Africa, passing through Palestine, Jordan, northern Arabia, and the Western Desert of Iraq toward western

Fig. 1.21 MODIS image of dust storm that originated from the Western Desert of Iraq, covering southern Iraq, Kuwait, and the northern Arabian Gulf on 2nd July 2009

Kuwait on 25th January 2010. These types of unidirectional dust storm trajectories take the wider form of covering the Western Desert of Iraq, where the Mesopotamian Floodplain is not affected. These northwestern dust storms' large trajectories blow normally in January, February, March, April, June, September, and October. The northwesterly trajectories' fallen dust that passes only through the Western Desert of Iraq is brighter in color, coarser in size fraction, with more sand particles, and contains more quartz and feldspars but fewer carbonates and clay minerals, with a lower particle surface area, and less iron and organic matter in comparison with the trajectories from the Mesopotamian Floodplain. The following weather data were recorded on 25th January 2010 (Fig. 1.26):


# Satellite Images

A small and unidirectional dust storm blowing from the southeast toward Kuwait on 31st January 2010. The southeastern dust storms' small trajectories normally blow in October and December, and rarely in January and February. The southeastern trajectories' fallen dust is brighter in color, coarser in size fraction, with more sand particles, and contains more quartz and feldspars but fewer carbonates and clay minerals, with a lower particle surface area, and less content of iron and organic matter when compared with the trajectories from the north and northwest. On the other hand, the dust deposited from this trajectory is characterized by smaller particle size, less quartz, and contains more organic matter than trajectories from the southwest. The following weather data were recorded on 31st January 2010 (Fig. 1.27):


Fig. 1.22 MODIS image of dust storm that originated from the Western Desert of Iraq, covering southern Iraq, Kuwait, and the northern Arabian Gulf on 3rd July 2009

• The east and east-southeast wind directions represent 20.8% and 25.5%, respectively, of the total hourly wind count for that day.

# Satellite Images

A dust storm blew from the southeast toward Kuwait on 1st February 2010. The southeastern dust storm small trajectories usually blow in October and December, and occasionally in February. The wind passing over the Arabian Gulf becomes laden with water vapor, which causes the rapid deposition of dust. The fallen dust within southeastern trajectories is brighter in color, coarser in size fraction, with more sand particles, and contains more quartz and feldspars but fewer carbonates and clay minerals, with a lower particle surface area, and less content of iron and organic matter in comparison with trajectories from the north and northwest. On the other hand, the deposited dust from this trajectory is characterized by smaller particle size, less quartz, and contains more organic matter when compared with trajectories from the southwest. Weather data collected on 1st February 2010 were as follows (Fig. 1.28):


# Satellite Images

Coalescence of two wind directions from the southeast and southwest caused a dust storm blowing mainly from local sources within Kuwait on 3rd February 2010. This type of dust storm trajectory is a moderate form in which the area covered is less than 3000 km2 . The southeasterly trajectories' fallen dust's physical and chemical properties are fully described in previous images from the same direction. The following weather data were recorded on 3rd February 2010 (Fig. 1.29):

Fig. 1.23 MODIS image of dust storm that originated from the Western Desert of Iraq, covering southern Iraq, Kuwait, and the northern Arabian Gulf on 29th July 2009


# Satellite Images

A two-wind direction from the southeast and west-northwest facing each other in northern Kuwait caused a small unidirectional dust storm blowing mainly from local and close regional sources toward Kuwait on 13th February 2010. This type of dust storm trajectory is a moderate form and lasts only for a short period. The southeasterly trajectory's fallen dust physical and chemical properties are fully described in previous images from the same direction. The following weather data were recorded on 13th February 2010 (Fig. 1.30):


# Satellite Images

A broad and unidirectional dust storm blew from northern Arabia and the Western Desert of Iraq toward Kuwait on 23rd February 2011. These types of dust storm trajectories take a wider form but have a low wind speed. Normally, the northwest trajectory has a high wind speed but, on this rare occasion, was only moderate, causing the movement of mud-sized particles . In this case, the dust contains more nutrients, organic matter, and pollen, and is characterized by a higher content of clay minerals and carbonates than

Fig. 1.24 Satellite image (MODIS) of dust storm on 15th August 2009 that blew from Diwaniyah and Ahwar in the Mesopotamian Floodplain in southern Iraq, passing through northern Kuwait toward the Arabian Gulf

normal. The following weather data were recorded on 23rd February 2010 (Fig. 1.31):


# Satellite Images

A moderate, unidirectional dust storm blowing from northern Arabia and the Western Desert of Iraq toward Kuwait on 26th February 2010. This type of dust storm trajectory takes a small arrow shape form, in which the area covered by the trajectory is less than 3000 km<sup>2</sup> . These moderate, northwesterly large trajectories are familiar in March, but this one was at the end of February. The northwesterly trajectories' fallen dust contains more quartz and feldspars but fewer carbonates and clay minerals, with a lower particle surface area, and less iron and organic matter when compared with trajectories from the Mesopotamian Floodplain, but much more when compared with other trajectories. The following weather data were recorded on 26th February 2010 (Fig. 1.32):


# Satellite Images

Massive and strong unidirectional dust storm formed in northern Arabia and the Western Desert of Iraq blowing toward Kuwait on 4th March 2010. This type of dust storm trajectory took the wider form, in which the area covered is

Fig. 1.25 MODIS image of dust storm that originated from the Western Desert of Iraq, covering southern Iraq, Kuwait, and the northern Arabian Gulf on 6th January 2010

more than 3000 km<sup>2</sup> . The northwestern large trajectories blow normally in January, February, March, April, June, September, and October. Fallen dust of the northwesterly trajectories is brighter in color, coarser in size fraction, with more sand particles, and contains more quartz and feldspars but fewer carbonates and clay minerals, with a lower particle surface area, and less iron and organic matter when compared with the trajectories from the Mesopotamian Floodplain, but is higher when compared with the other trajectories. The following weather data were recorded on 4th March 2010 (Fig. 1.33):


# Satellite Images

A northwesterly unidirectional dust storm covering the northern part of the Arabian Gulf coming from the Western Desert of Iraq toward Kuwait on 5th March 2010. This type of dust storm trajectory takes the wider form. The northwestern dust storm has large trajectories that blow normally in January, February, March, April, June, September, and October. The fallen dust during these trajectories is brighter in color, coarser in size fraction, with more sand particles, contains more quartz and feldspars but fewer carbonates and clay minerals, with a lower particle surface area, and less iron and organic matter than trajectories from the Mesopotamian Floodplain but more than other trajectories. The following weather data were recorded on 5th March 2010 (Fig. 1.34):

• The local prevailing wind direction (northwest, west-northwest) agrees with that deduced from the image.

Fig. 1.26 MODIS image of dust storm that originated from the Western Desert of Iraq, covering southern Iraq, Kuwait, and the northern Arabian Gulf on 25th January 2010


# Satellite Images

A unidirectional dust storm blowing with moderate wind speed from the northern Arabian Gulf toward Kuwait on 19th March 2010. The northwestern dust storm has large trajectories that blow normally in January, February, March, April, June, September, and October. The fallen dust of the trajectories is brighter in color, finer in size fraction, with very few sand particles, contains more carbonates and clay minerals but less quartz and feldspars, with higher particle surface area, and is high in iron content and organic matter when compared with all other trajectories. The following weather data were recorded on 19th March 2010 (Fig. 1.35):

• The local prevailing wind direction (northwest, north-northwest) agrees with that deduced from the image.

# Satellite Images

A dust storm of about 250 km width blowing from the southeast toward the northern Arabian Gulf, Bahrain, Qatar, and Kuwait on 27th March 2010. The southwestern large trajectories' fallen dust is brighter in color, coarser in size fraction, and contains more quartz and feldspars but has fewer carbonates and clay minerals, with a lower particle surface area, and less iron and organic matter in comparison with trajectories from the north and northwest. The following weather data were recorded on 27th March 2010 (Fig. 1.36):

• The local prevailing wind direction: west, west-northwest. There was also a north component. This direction agrees with that deduced from the image over the area of Kuwait.

Fig. 1.27 MODIS image of dust storm that originated from the Western Desert of Iraq, covering southern Iraq, Kuwait, and the northern Arabian Gulf on 31st January 2010

• The west-northwest and west wind directions represent 16.1% each of the total hourly wind count for that day.

# Satellite Images

A substantial unidirectional dust storm blowing from the northern Mesopotamian Floodplain and the Western Desert of Iraq toward Kuwait on 7th June 2010. This type of dust storm trajectory takes the wider form, covering more than 3000 km<sup>2</sup> . The northwestern large trajectories blow normally in January, February, March, April, June, September, and October. The northwesterly trajectories' fallen dust is brighter in color, coarser in size fraction, with mud particles, contains more carbonates and clay but less quartz and feldspar minerals, has a higher particle surface area, and a high content of iron and organic matter compared with other trajectories toward Kuwait. The following weather data were recorded on 7th June 2010 (Fig. 1.37):


# Satellite Images

A unidirectional dust storm blowing from northern Arabia and the Western Desert of Iraq toward Kuwait on 20th June 2010. This type of dust storm trajectory takes the wider form, covering more than 3000 km<sup>2</sup> . The northwestern dust storm large trajectories blow normally in January, February, March, April, June, September, and October. Furthermore, moderate dust storm trajectories that cover an area of less than 3000 km<sup>2</sup> are familiar in March, May, June, July, and August. The northwesterly trajectories' fallen dust is brighter

Fig. 1.28 MODIS image of dust storm that originated from the Western Desert of Iraq, covering southern Iraq, Kuwait, and the northern Arabian Gulf on 1st February 2010

in color, coarser in fraction size, with more sand particles, and contains more quartz and feldspars but fewer carbonates and clay minerals, has a lower particle surface area, and has less iron and organic matter compared with trajectories from the Mesopotamian Floodplain. The following weather data were recorded on 20th June 2010 (Fig. 1.38):


# Satellite Images

A strong unidirectional dust storm blowing from northern Arabia and the Western Desert of Iraq toward Kuwait on 23rd July 2010. This type of dust storm trajectory takes the wider form, covering more than 3000 km2 . The northwestern large trajectories blow normally in January, February, March, April, June, September, and October. Furthermore, moderate dust storm trajectories that cover an area of less than 3000 km<sup>2</sup> are familiar in March, May, June, July, and August. The northwesterly trajectories' fallen dust is brighter in color, coarser in fraction size, with more sand particles, contains more quartz and feldspars but fewer carbonates and clay minerals, has a lower particle surface area and less iron and organic matter in comparison with trajectories from the Mesopotamian Floodplain. The following weather data were recorded on 28th July 2010 (Fig. 1.39):


Fig. 1.29 MODIS image of dust storm that originated from the Western Desert of Iraq, covering southern Iraq, Kuwait, and the northern Arabian Gulf on 3rd February 2010

# Satellite Images

A spiral multidirectional dust storm blowing from the southwest toward Kuwait on 29th July 2010. This type of dust storm trajectory is uncommon in the area. The trajectory takes the wider form, covering more than 3,000 km<sup>2</sup> and normally blows in January, February, March, April, June, September, and October. The northwesterly trajectories' fallen dust is brighter in color, coarser in fraction size, with more sand particles (diameter more than 0.063 mm), contains more quartz and feldspars but fewer carbonates and clay minerals, has a lower particle surface area, and less iron and organic matter when compared with trajectories from the Mesopotamian Floodplain. The following weather data were recorded on 29th July 2010 (Fig. 1.40):


# Satellite Images

A small, unidirectional dust storm on 10th August 2010 that originated in southeastern Kuwait. The storm has a smaller trajectory, covering the southern area of Kuwait, but

Fig. 1.30 MODIS image of dust storm that originated from the Western Desert of Iraq, covering southern Iraq, Kuwait, and the northern Arabian Gulf on 13th February 2010

contains the largest particles of dust, which have the highest quartz content and the smallest surface area compared with other trajectories. This type of trajectory is not in a straight line but is curved because of the wind from the sea. The settlement time is quick, as it contains large particles, mainly sand and coarse silt (Fig. 1.41).

The following weather data were recorded on 10th August 2010:


# Satellite Images

A small dust storm that originated from a regional but short distance and local source areas of dust. This type of dust is brighter in color, has coarse size particles that contain more quartz but fewer carbonates and a lower surface area than from dust storms from the north and northeast. The following weather data were recorded on 31st August 2010 (Fig. 1.42):


Fig. 1.31 MODIS image of dust storm that originated from the Western Desert of Iraq, covering southern Iraq, Kuwait, and the northern Arabian Gulf on 23rd February 2010

# Satellite Images

A small dust storm blowing from the northwest, covering small areas less than 3000 km2 . This type of dust storm forms commonly from intermediate regional and local source areas. This type of dust contains more quartz, fewer carbonates and heavy minerals, larger particles, has a smaller surface area and quicker settling time in comparison with broader scale dust storms from the same direction. The following weather data were recorded on 10th October 2010 (Fig. 1.43):

Fig. 1.32 MODIS image of dust storm that originated from the Western Desert of Iraq, covering southern Iraq, Kuwait, and the northern Arabian Gulf on 26th February 2010


# Satellite Images

A strong unidirectional dust storm blowing from northern Arabia and the Western Desert of Iraq toward Kuwait and the Arabian Gulf on 13th December 2010. This type of dust storm trajectory takes the wider form, covering more than 3,000 km2 (Fig. 1.44).

The following weather data were recorded on 13th December 2010:


Fig. 1.33 MODIS image of dust storm that originated from the Western Desert of Iraq, covering southern Iraq, Kuwait, and the northern Arabian Gulf on 4th March 2010

Fig. 1.34 MODIS image of dust storm that originated from the Western Desert of Iraq, covering southern Iraq, Kuwait, and the northern Arabian Gulf on 5th March 2010

Fig. 1.35 MODIS image of dust storm that originated from the Western Desert of Iraq, covering southern Iraq, Kuwait, and the northern Arabian Gulf on 19th March 2010

Fig. 1.36 MODIS image of dust storm that originated from the Western Desert of Iraq, covering southern Iraq, Kuwait, and the northern Arabian Gulf on 27th March 2010

Fig. 1.37 MODIS image of dust storm that originated from the Western Desert of Iraq, covering southern Iraq, Kuwait, and the northern Arabian Gulf on 7th June 2010

Fig. 1.38 MODIS image of dust storm that originated from the Western Desert of Iraq, covering southern Iraq, Kuwait, and the northern Arabian Gulf on 20th June 2010

Fig. 1.39 MODIS image of dust storm that originated from the Western Desert of Iraq, covering southern Iraq, Kuwait, and the northern Arabian Gulf on 28th July 2010

Fig. 1.40 MODIS image of dust storm that originated from the Western Desert of Iraq, covering southern Iraq, Kuwait, and the northern Arabian Gulf on 29th July 2010

Fig. 1.41 Satellite image showing the State of Kuwait and surroundings—taken on 10th August 2010

Fig. 1.42 Satellite image showing the State of Kuwait and surroundings—taken on 31st August 2010

Fig. 1.43 Satellite image showing the State of Kuwait and surroundings—taken on 10th October 2010

Fig. 1.44 Satellite image showing the State of Kuwait and surroundings—taken on 13th December 2010

Fig. 1.45 Satellite image showing the State of Kuwait and surroundings—taken on 14th December 2010

# Satellite Images

A unidirectional dust storm blowing from northern Arabia and the Western Desert of Iraq toward Kuwait on 14th December 2010. This dust storm trajectory takes the wider form and blows normally in January, February, March, April, June, September, and October. Additionally, moderate trajectories are common in March,May, June, July, and August. The dust in these trajectories is brighter in color, coarser in fraction size, with more sand particles, contains more quartz and feldspars but fewer carbonates and clay minerals, has a lower particle surface area, and less iron and organic matter when compared with trajectories from the Mesopotamian Floodplain. The following weather data were recorded on 14th December 2010 (Fig. 1.45):


# References


mortality in six US cities. The New England Journal of Medicine, 329, 1753–1759. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199312093292401.


influence on light available to the phytoplankton community. Hydrobiologia, 494, 299–304. https://doi.org/10.1023/A: 1025455424972.


Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence and indicate if changes were made.

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# 2 Deposited Dust

# Ali Al-Dousari and Noor Al-Dousari

#### Abstract

A dust storm is meteorologically defined whenever visibility is less than 1,000 meters (Al-Kulaib 1990). Al-Dousari (2009) lists Kuwait as having one of the highest dust precipitation rates in the world. Safar (1980) states that the annual average number of dusty days due to dust storms or rising dust or suspended dust in Kuwait is 255.4. Forty-seven sampling sites representing all the geomorphological and sedimentological provinces in Kuwait were selected for the installation of dust traps to measure the average annual amount of deposited dust during 2009–2010 and 2010–2011 in tons.km-2.

# Sample Location

Forty-seven sampling sites representing all the geomorphological and sedimentological provinces in Kuwait were selected for the installation of dust traps (Fig. 2.1). The sites included the largest island in Kuwait, coastal areas, desert ecosystems, and the Kuwaiti boundaries with Saudi Arabia and Iraq. The dust fallout in Kuwait was monitored continuously to attain the following objectives:


# Deposited Dust

# Introduction

Wind is the most active agent in the desert ecosystem. It can remove sand, silt, and clay-sized particles from the surface and blow them, as dust and sandstorms, over great distances (Al-Dousari 2009). Al-Dousari (2009) lists Kuwait as having one of the highest dust precipitation rates in the world. Safar (1980) states that the annual average number of dusty days due to dust storms or rising dust or suspended dust in Kuwait is 255.4 (Al-Dousari 2009). Data on the frequency and rates of dust deposition suggest that the rates of aeolian accumulation may be of a similar order of magnitude as rates of fluvial erosion (Goudie 1978; Wells et al. 2007). Although dust is a result of soil erosion from some areas, it is also a major contributor to soil in other areas, as noted in the dust deposition in Oman (Badawy et al. 1992); Riyadh (Al-Tayeb and Jarrar 1993); Australia, New Zeeland (Marx et al. 2005); Canary Islands (Moreno et al. 2006); Florida, Bahamas, Barbados (Muhs et al. 2007); and Spain (Querol et al. 2007). "Desert areas are important sources of mineral dust to the atmosphere, which upon deposition, can influence oceanic and terrestrial biochemical cycles and affect forest productivity" (Avila and Penuelas 1999). Dust traveling long distances is commonly very fine, with sizes predominantly between 0.068 and 0.02 mm (Walker and Costin 1971). Significant quantities of dust may be blown thousands of kilometers from their source (Meng and Lu 2007), and it has been estimated that windblown dust derived from soil erosion contributes approximately 500 <sup>10</sup><sup>6</sup> t of the PM to the atmosphere each year (Peterson and Junge 1971).

A. Al-Dousari (&) N. Al-Dousari

Crisis Descision Supports Program (CDS), Environment and Life Sciences Research Center (ELSRC), Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR), P.O. Box 24885 13109 Safat, Kuwait e-mail: adousari@kisr.edu.kw

N. Al-Dousari e-mail: ndousari@kisr.edu.kw

Fig. 2.1 Dust traps sampling locations among Kuwait

# Methodology

A dust storm is meteorologically defined whenever visibility is less than 1000 m (Al-Kulaib 1990). In the first decade of this century (July 2000–March 2010), dust storm days were counted in Kuwait using airport meteorological data. Low-resolution images such as METEOSAT (visible and infrared images), MODIS (bands 3, 4, and 7), TOMS, AVHRR, and SeaWiFS were collected within the same period to locate the dust storm primary, intermediate, regional, and local sources and trajectories. Dust storm images were obtained from the satellites' free websites. A map was produced by locating the significant trajectories showing the trajectory direction and duration. The trajectories were classified into two types according to surface area covered by the dust storm that was detected using meteorological data and satellite images: major (greater than or equal to 3000 km<sup>2</sup> ) and intermediate (less than 3000 km<sup>2</sup> ) trajectories.

Modified dust traps were manufactured following the design of Al-Awadhi (2005). Modifications included thermal insulation on the sides and the bottom of the dust containers. The dust traps were installed at 47 sites, at 240 cm above the ground surface, and were chosen to represent the prevailing environmental conditions of Kuwait (Fig. 2.2). The traps were fixed in fields at least 50 m away from any infrastructure. The fallen dust rates were monitored monthly, from September 1, 2009, to August 31, 2011. The collected data and samples were compared with those from the Kuwait Environment Public Authority (KEPA) and regional and global literature.

Initially, the characteristics of the dust were examined and interpreted using a series of analytical tools. Grain-size parameters were determined using standard sieve analysis and the Centrifugal Particle Analyzer (Shimadzu, SA-CP3) for all dust fallout samples in January and October 2010. The Brunauer, Emmett, and Teller (BET) surface area is expressed as the value of a specific weight of loose sand in terms of m2 /g measured by using isotherm plot diagrams of volume against pressure and the BET equation. The whole components of the dust samples were gently powdered and analyzed using Philips PW-1830 X-ray Diffraction (XRD). Semi-quantitative analysis was carried out for the Bubiyan (D07), Warba (D09), Sabiya (S-3), and National Park (RD4) samples, and the results were compared with regional and global dust collection by the authors or others from the literature. Furthermore, a scanning electron microscope (SEM) was used to analyze the Bubiyan and Al-Liyah dust samples (L18 and D-08) with a magnification ranging from 600 to 2700X.

Fig. 2.2 Dust trap in Al-Liyah newly preserved area (2009)

# Annual Deposited Dust

The average annual amount of deposited dust during 2009– 2010 was 220 tons km−<sup>2</sup> . The northern coastal areas and the western areas of Kuwait had the highest amount of deposited dust. The preserved areas and southern coastal areas had the lowest amount. The preserved areas around Jahra, with dense vegetation cover compared with the open desert areas, had less deposited dust, which is attributed to the capability of native vegetation preventing the movement (re-suspension) of dust particles after the initial deposition (Fig. 2.3).


The annual dust deposited rate in Kuwait during 2010– 2011 was 373 tons km−<sup>2</sup> , which is higher than in 2009/2010 by 33.2% (220 tons km−<sup>2</sup> ). The areas of lower and higher concentrations of dust were nearly the same as in 2009– 2010. It is evident from the slight variation in the distribution of dust fallout over the two years that there is an appreciable amount of dust fallout contribution from local sources. This knowledge guides us for planning future urban areas such as the Sabiyah and Bubiyan Island, which suffer from a high concentration of dust fallout as they are rich in mud size particles. Spatial and temporal variations in dust fallout

Fig. 2.3 Annual deposited dust for 2009–2010

fluxes within Kuwait are shown in the attached Figs. 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9 and 2.10.


Fig. 2.4 Annual deposited dust for 2010–2011

Fig. 2.5 Deposited dust

Fig. 2.6 Deposited dust for August 2009–December 2009

Fig. 2.7 Deposited dust for January 2010–May 2010

Fig. 2.8 Deposited dust for June 2010–October 2010

Fig. 2.9 Deposited dust for November 2010–March 2011

Fig. 2.10 Deposited dust for April 2011–August 2011

# References


Minqin, China. Atmospheric Environment, 41, 7048–7058. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.05.006.


Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.

# 3 Dust Particle Size and Statistical Parameters

Noor Al-Dousari, Modi Ahmed, Ali Al-Dousari, Musaad Al-Daihani, and Murahib Al-Elaj

### Abstract

Grain 'size' can be specified and measured in several different ways. All methods of grain size determination have blemishes, and the choice of the most appropriate method is governed by the nature of the sample and the use to which the data are placed. Four main methods are currently used for size analysis of sands: (a) sieving; (b) settling tube analysis; (c) electro-optical methods, including Coulter Counter analysis and laser granulometry; and (d) computerized image analysis. The classification of the particle size distribution of Kuwait dust was mapped according to the parameters proposed by Folk And Ward (1957) which were widely used for quantitative comparisons between natural grain size distribution and the lognormal that shows better sorted sediments have lower values of r1. Maps of the distribution of dust in Kuwait were obtained that included: fine sand (F.S.), Coarse sand (C.S), Medium Sand (M.S), Very Fine Sane (V.F.S), Very Coarse Silt (V.C.Silt), Coarse Silt (C.Silt), Medium Silt (M.Silt), Fine Silt (F.Silt), Very Fine Silt (V.

N. Al-Dousari (&) M. Ahmed A. Al-Dousari Crisis Descision Supports Program (CDS), Environment & Life

M. Ahmed e-mail: mmahmed@kisr.edu.kw

A. Al-Dousari e-mail: adousari@kisr.edu.kw

M. Al-Daihani

M. Al-Elaj

© The Author(s) 2021 A. Al-Dousari (ed.), Atlas of Fallen Dust in Kuwait, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66977-5\_3

F.Silt), in addition to that, the deposition percentage of Clay, Sand, mud (silt plus clay) and silt were provided.

# Introduction

Dust suspended over long distances consists of mud particles that predominantly originate from regional sources such as the Western Desert of Iraq and the Mesopotamian Floodplain, in addition to local dust deposition that produces relatively coarse saltated dust material greater than 63 mm grain-size fractions. The former type represents 63% of the dust, and the latter, 37%. Generally, the distribution of particle size is trimodal and displays slight variation over time. The sand particles, being heavier than mud, move in the form of saltation, are transported for short distances, and predominantly originate from local sources. The grain-size percentages of dust collected in the open desert and coastal areas, such as Bubiyan, vary. Bubiyan dust is negatively skewed, trimodal with clay dominancy coarse, and with fine silt size fractions. The trimodal of the distribution curves indicates multiple sources.

Liyah dust (i.e. open desert) is negatively skewed and unimodal with the dominance of very coarse sand size fraction. There is a trend of a coarsening of the mean size fraction toward the west. Furthermore, the dust particles collected from the western side of the study area are larger and smoother than those from the eastern side. Bubiyan dust is finer and contains more adhering particles, mainly gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) and bassanite (CaSO4.1/2H2O). The average percentages for clay, very fine silt, very coarse silt, and very fine sand in the dust reveal the dominance of clay along the sides of the dunes corridor (Huwaimiliyah-Wafra), Um Umara, north and east Bubiyan, and Bahrat Hushan.

Dust storms cause serious health hazards.

Sciences Research Center (ELSRC), Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR), P.O. Box. 24885 Safat, 13109, Kuwait e-mail: ndousari@kisr.edu.kw

Construction & Production Department, Kuwait Oil Company (KOC), P.O. Box. 9758 Ahmadi, 61008, Kuwait e-mail: mdaihani@kockw.com

Environment & Life Sciences Research Center (ELSRC), Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR), P.O. Box. 24885 Safat, 13109, Kuwait e-mail: maraheb@protonmail.com

# Methodology

Grain movement is influenced by the characteristics of individual grains from the source, such as size, shape, and density, but also by the characteristics of the sediment bulk, which include the grain-size distribution (sorting), orientation, packing arrangement, porosity, and cohesion. During transport, grains are sorted according to size and shape due to inter-particle collisions or contact with the bed.

Grain 'size' can be specified and measured in several different ways. All methods of grain-size determination have issues, and the choice of the most appropriate method is governed by the nature of the sample and the use to which the data are made. Four main methods are currently used for the size analysis of sands: (a) sieving; (b) settling tube analysis; (c) electro-optical methods, including Coulter Counter analysis and laser granulometry; and (d) computerized image analysis.

However, the most widely used method is dry sieving, in which a sand sample is shaken through a nest of successively finer mesh sieves. Conventionally, the weight of the sand retained on each sieve is converted to a percentage of the total sample. Several studies have shown that particle shape can significantly impact the sieve data (Komar and Cui 1984; Kennedy et al. 1985). All the difficulties may be experienced when samples contain a mixture of quartz and parts of the platy crusts (Carter 1982). The deposit particle sizes range from several meters to less than 1 lm, (Udden 1914; Wentworth 1922). Table 1 presents a graphical representation and statistical manipulation of grain-size frequency data. Krumbein (1934) proposes that the grade boundaries should be logarithmically transformed into phi (u) values.

Table 1 Size scales of Udden (1914) and Wentworth (1922), with class terminology modifications proposed by Friedman and Sanders (1978)


Fig. 3.1 Average percentages of coarse sand in the deposited dust(February, May, August, November 2010)

Coarse sand (C.S.) ranges in size between 0.5 and 1 mm (1-0 phi). The fallen dust in the northeastern and coastal area of Kuwait had the lowest C.S. percentage. In contrast, Wafra, the southwestern areas of Kuwait, and the Ratqah had the highest C.S. percentage. Although the C.S. percentages are less than 10% in general, they could indicate size behavior of fallen dust both temporarily and spatially. The highest rates were noted in February.


Fig. 3.2 Coarse sand size fractions percentages in Feb, May, Aug, Nov 2010

Fig. 3.3 Average percentages of medium sand in the deposited dust (February, May, August, November 2010)

Medium sand (M.S.) ranges in size between 0.25 and 0.5 mm (2–1 phi). It had a similar distribution to C.S. Furthermore, February's fallen dust had the highest percentages. It has always been noted that the southern areas of Kuwait are characterized by sandy dust more than most other areas in the country, as they experience the highest aeolian accumulation. On the other hand, the northern and northeastern areas of Kuwait have the lowest percentages of M.S. size fraction. In August, the M.S. had a higher percentage within the major wind or dune corridor in Kuwait.


Fig. 3.4 Medium sand size fraction percentages in Feb, May, Aug, Nov 2010

Fig. 3.5 Average percentages of fine sand in the deposited dust (February, May, August, November 2010)

Fine sand (F.S.) ranges in size between 0.125 and 0.25 mm (3–2 phi). It had a similar trend of distribution to C.S. and M.S., but the percentages are about twice of those. The highest rates were recorded in February. The highest percentages were in a corridor that extends from the Retqah toward the Wafra in Kuwait. On the other hand, the lowest rates of M.S. size fraction were noted on Bubiyan Island and the northeastern areas of Kuwait.


Fig. 3.6 Fine sand size fractions percentages in Feb, May, Aug, Nov 2010

Fig. 3.7 Average percentages of very fine sand in the deposited dust (February, May, August, November 2010)

Very fine sand (V.F.S.) ranges in size between 0.063 and 0.125 mm (4–3 phi). It had a similar trend of distribution to C.S. and M.S., but the percentages were much more than twice the amount. The highest percentage rates were noted in February. The highest percentages were in a corridor that extends from the Retqah area toward the Wafra area in Kuwait. On the other hand, the lowest percentage rates of V. F.S. were recorded on Bubiyan Island and in the northeastern areas of Kuwait.


Fig. 3.8 Very fine sand size fractions percentages in Feb, May, Aug, Nov 2010

Fig. 3.9 Average percentages of very coarse silt in the deposited dust (February, May, August, November 2010)

Very coarse silt (V.C. Silt) ranges in size between 0.031 and 0.063 mm (4–5 phi). V.C. Silt was present in higher percentages toward the coastal areas of Kuwait. The lowest percentages were in May. The V.C. Silt and the C. Silt had lower rates within the major wind or dune corridor in Kuwait during August. The lowest percentages were recorded in the eastern part of Bubiyan Island in all months except August.


Fig. 3.10 Very coarse silt size fractions percentages in Feb, May, Aug, Nov 2010

Fig. 3.11 Average percentages of coarse silt in the deposited dust (February, May, August, November 2010)

Coarse silt (C.Silt) ranges in size between 0.031 mm and 0. 016 mm (6–5 phi). The silt size fractions act as the main component of fallen dust. C.silt was present in higher percentages in the northeastern sector of Kuwait. The lowest percentages were seen during May. The lowest rates were observed in the east of Bubiyan Island.


Fig. 3.12 Coarse silt size fractions percentages in Feb, May, Aug, Nov 2010

Fig. 3.13 Average percentages of medium silt in the deposited dust (February, May, August, November 2010)

Medium silt (M. Silt) ranges in size between 0.008 mm and 0. 016 mm (6-7 phi). M.Silt was present in higher percentages around Kuwait Bay and Wadi Al-Batin at the western borders of Kuwait. The lowest percentages were recorded in February, while the highest were observed in May. Preserved areas (Liyah, around Kuwait Bay, and the fenced border zone) had the highest percentages of M. Silt. The lowest M. Silt percentages were on Bubiyan Island. The second lowest M. Silt percentages were observed in a corridor that extends from Retqah toward Wafra in Kuwait.


Fig. 3.14 Medium silt size fractions percentages in Feb, May, Aug, Nov 2010

Fig. 3.15 Average percentages of fine silt in the deposited dust (February, May, August, November 2010)

Fine silt (F. Silt) ranges in size between 0.004 mm and 0. 008 mm (7–8 phi). Similar to M. Silt, F. Silt was present in higher percentages around Kuwait Bay and Wadi Al-Batin at the western borders of Kuwait. The lowest percentages were recorded during February. During active aeolian processes in August, the lowest percentage rates were noted in a corridor that extends from Retqah toward Wafra in Kuwait. Bubiyan Island had low M. Silt percentages during winter, in February and November, but high percentage rates during summertime in May and August.


Fig. 3.16 Fine Silt size fractions percentages in Feb, May, Aug, Nov 2010

Fig. 3.17 Average percentages of very fine silt in the deposited dust (February, May, August, November 2010)

Very fine silt (V.F. Silt) ranges in size between 0.002 mm and 0.004 mm (8–9 phi). Similar to all the other silt size fractions, it was present in higher percentages around Kuwait Bay and Wadi Al-Batin at the western borders of Kuwait. The lowest percentages were noted during February and August. The lowest percentages of V.F. Silt were in a corridor that extends from the Retqah toward Wafra during August. Bubiyan Island had low V.F. Silt percentages during wintertime but high percentages during summertime.


Fig. 3.18 Very fine silt size fractions percentages in Feb, May, Aug, Nov 2010

Fig. 3.19 Average percentages of clay in the deposited dust (February, May, August, November 2010)

Clay particle size is less than 0.002 mm (9 phi) and represents a small percentage of fallen dust in Kuwait. Clay presented higher percentage rates around coastal areas, preserved areas, and the Wadi Al-Batin at the western borders of Kuwait. The lowest percentages were during February. Coastal and preserved areas had the highest rates of clay. The western Bubiyan Island contained more clay than the eastern side of the island.


Fig. 3.20 Clay size fraction percentages in Feb, May, Aug, Nov 2010

Fig. 3.21 Average percentages of sand in the deposited dust (February, May, August, November 2010)

Sand particles range in size between 2 mm and 0.063 mm (4–2 phi). February had the highest percentages of sand. Furthermore, the highest percentages were noted within a corridor that extends from the Retqah toward Wafra, as these areas experienced the highest aeolian accumulation in Kuwait.


Fig. 3.22 Sand size fractions percentages in Feb, May, Aug, Nov 2010

Fig. 3.23 Average percentages of mud in the deposited dust (February, May, August, November 2010)

Mud size fractions are less than 0.063 mm (4 phi). Mud contains two main size fractions: silt and clay. The northern parts of Kuwait had higher mud percentages than the south. February had the lowest mud percentages, while August and November had the highest percentage rates. The highest percentages were recorded within a corridor that extends from the Retqah toward Wafra, as these areas experienced the highest aeolian accumulation in Kuwait.


Fig. 3.24 Mud size fractions percentages in Feb, May, Aug, Nov 2010

Fig. 3.25 Average percentages of silt in the deposited dust (February, May, August, November 2010)

Silt size fractions range in size from 0.002 mm to 0.063 mm (9–4 phi). Similar to mud, northern Kuwait had higher mud percentages than the south. February had the lowest mud percentages, while August and November had the highest rates. Preserved areas were more silt-dominant than other locations in Kuwait.


Fig. 3.26 Silt size fractions percentages in Feb, May, Aug, Nov 2010

# distribution that shows better-sorted sediments have lower values of r1 (Table 2).

The parameters proposed by Folk And Ward (1957) have been widely used for quantitative comparisons between natural grain-size distribution and the log-normal

Methodology


Table 2 Terminology applied to graphical statistical parameter values (modified after Folk & Ward 1957)

Fig. 3.27 Diagrams illustrating the nature of a skewness (asymmetry) and b kurtosis (peakedness) in grain-size distributions (Pye and Tsoar, 1990)

Positive values of Sk1 indicate that the distribution has a more evident trail of fine material compared with a log-normal distribution. In contrast, negative values of Sk1 announce an insufficiency of fine particles compared with the log-normal distribution (Fig. 3.27).

The 'peakedness' or kurtosis of a distribution is indicated by the inclusive graphic kurtosis:

Frequency distributions, which are flatter than a normal probability curve, are referred to as platykurtic, and strongly peaked curves are described as leptokurtic. Intermediate curves are referred to as mesokurtic (Table 2, Fig. 3.27).

Fig. 3.28 Average statistical parameters (mean) for the deposited dust. (February, May, August, November 2010)

The mean particle size for dust fallout in Kuwait was coarser in the southern areas of Kuwait. The particle size ranges from very fine sand to very coarse silt. There was a zone of coarsening dust particle size that extends from the Ratqah, in northern Kuwait, to the south at Wafra Farms. During August, the mean size tended to be smaller, while it is finer during May and November.


Fig. 3.29 Mean for the deposited dust February, May, August, November 2010

Fig. 3.30 Average statistical parameters (sorting) for the deposited dust. (February, May, August, November 2010)

The dust fallout particles in Kuwait are poorly to very poorly sorted. Particles are very poorly sorted in Wadi Al-Batin, the Jahra, and the southern areas of Kuwait. For all months, the dust fallout particles are better classified around Kuwait Bay.


Fig. 3.31 Sorting for the deposited dust February, May, August, November 2010

Fig. 3.32 Average statistical parameters (kurtosis) for the deposited dust. (February, May, August, November 2010)

The dust fallout in Kuwait is leptokurtic to mesokurtic. The fallout was leptokurtic in the southern and northern areas of Kuwait, and mesokurtic around coastal areas (mainly around Kuwait Bay) and Wadi Al-Batin at the western borders of Kuwait. Kuwaiti fallen dust tended to be more mesokurtic during February and May. Wadi Al-Batin was characterized by predominantly mesokurtic dust fallout throughout the year.


Fig. 3.33 Kurtosis for the deposited dust (February, May, August, November 2010)

Fig. 3.34 Average statistical parameters (skewness) for the deposited dust. (February, May, August, November 2010)

The dust fallout in Kuwait varies in values from negatively skewed to positively skewed. There were two corridors with positive skewness, the first extends from the Sabiyah toward the Dibdibah, while the second is parallel to the first in the southern areas of Kuwait. Kuwaiti fallen dust tended to be more negatively skewed during August.


Fig. 3.35 Skewness for the deposited dust (February, May, August, November 2010)

# References


Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.

# 4 Mineralogy (XRD)

# Ali Al-Dousari and Muntha Bahbahani

#### Abstract


# Methodology

The two main particle-size components of the dust samples were subjected to mineralogical analysis, namely:


The mineralogical analysis of dust particles was performed to identify the mineral constituents and to determine their frequency percentage in each textural class. The whole components of the dust samples were gently powdered and analyzed using XRD and a Philips PW-1830 Powder Diffractometer, and data were semi-quantitatively analyzed using X'Pert II software. Furthermore, to observe seasonal variations, the following four months' worth of samples was analyzed:


There were 47 site locations for the selected four months.

A. Al-Dousari (&)

Crisis Decision Supports Program (CDS), Environment and Life Sciences Research Center (ELSRC), Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR), P.O. Box 24885 Safat, 13109, Kuwait e-mail: adousari@kisr.edu.kw

M. Bahbahani

Environmental Pollution and Climate Program (EPCP), Environment and Life Sciences Research Center (ELSRC), Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR), P.O. Box 24885 Safat, 13109, Kuwait e-mail: mbahbaha@kisr.edu.kw

Fig. 4.1 Average percentages of calcite, December 2010

The mineralogy of dust fallout in Kuwait contains quartz, calcite, carbonates, dolomites, feldspars, and a small percentage of other minerals. Quartz and carbonates form the significant percentage of dust fallout mineralogy. The percentage of carbonates, in general, was highest during winter (October–April). Calcite, as a major constituent of carbonates in Kuwait, was higher in Liyah and coastal areas and extending toward the northwest. The Dibdibah Formation contains calcretes and dolcretes as a major source of carbonate dust.


Fig. 4.2 Average percentages of carbonate, December 2010

The mineralogy of dust fallout in Kuwait constitutes carbonates as a main component. Quartz and carbonates form the major percentage of dust fallout mineralogy. The percentage rate of carbonates, in general, was highest in winter and springtime (October–April). Carbonates in Kuwait were greater in Liyah and in the coastal area that extends toward the northwest. The Dibdibah Formation contains calcretes and dolcretes as a major source of carbonate dust.


Fig. 4.3 Average percentages of clay, December 2010

The mineralogy of dust fallout in Kuwait contains a small percentage of clay minerals. This percentage, in general, was highest during wintertime (October–April). Clay minerals, as a minor constituent in Kuwait, were more present in Salmi, Dibdibah, and Liyah, as well as in the drainage systems, including "wadis" and "playas," which are the primary local sources of dust in Kuwait.


Fig. 4.4 Average percentages of dolomite, December 2010

Dust fallout in Kuwait contains appreciable amounts of dolomite. Quartz and carbonates form the major percentage of dust fallout mineralogy. The percentage of carbonates, in general, was highest during winter (October–April). Calcite, as a significant constituent of carbonates in Kuwait, was higher in Liyah and coastal areas and extends toward the northwest. The Dibdibah Formation contains calcretes and dolcretes as a major source of carbonate dust.


Fig. 4.5 Average percentages of feldspars, December 2010

Dust in Kuwait contains considerable amounts of feldspar minerals (alkali and plagioclase feldspars). The percentage of feldspar, in general, was highest in winter and spring (October–April). Feldspar content was as high as 44% in the Shuaiba area. Feldspars act as a primary component of rock-forming minerals and are classified as "soft" (6 on the Moho Hardness scale). Therefore, they disintegrate quickly and are transported in the form of dust for long distances, passing the Arabian Gulf from Iran toward Kuwait. Higher percentages were noted in Liyah and the coastal area and extend toward the northwest.


Fig. 4.6 Average percentages of quartz, December 2010

In December, fallen dust had lower quartz percentages than in summertime. The northeastern coastal areas (Bubiyan, Um Niqa) and southwestern border of Kuwait had the highest percentages (up to 61.8%). These percentages in these areas were thanks to the wind direction during these months. The southern coastal areas and major dunes corridor had the lowest percentage (as low as 32%). The higher percentages of quartz indicate high aeolian activity in the region.


Fig. 4.7 Average percentages of calcite, March 2010

Fallen dust in Kuwait contains high percentages of carbonates and, more specifically, calcite. Quartz and carbonates form the large percentage of dust fallout mineralogy. The percentage rate of carbonates is usually highest in winter and springtime (October-April). Calcite, as a major constitute of carbonates in Kuwait, is higher in dust as a component in areas such as Salmi, Huwaymilyah, and Jahra due to the wind direction and speed in these months. The Dibdibah Formation contains calcretes and dolcretes as a major source of carbonate dust. Furthermore, the higher percentages of calcites and carbonates indicate lower aeolian activity in the area.


Fig. 4.8 Average percentages of carbonate, March 2010

Fallen dust in Kuwait contains high percentages of carbonates (up to 58%). Carbonates, as a major component of dust fallout mineralogy, are good indicators of low aeolian activity in the area during winter and springtime (October– April). Carbonates include dolomite and calcite. There were high percentages of carbonates within dust in Kuwait in areas such as Salmi, Huwaymilyah, and Atraf due to the wind directions and speed in these months. The Dibdibah Formation contains calcretes and dolcretes as a major source of carbonate dust.


Fig. 4.9 Average percentages of clay, March 2010

High percentages of clay during March 2010 were restricted to major wadis such as Wadi Al-Batin, the Sabkha region, and the northeastern coastal areas in Kuwait, reaching up to 5.1%. Clay was higher also in densely vegetated areas, such as Al-Mutla, a protected habitat in northern Kuwait Bay, as clay mineral is lighter in weight, making it difficult to be captured by vegetation, as quartz and carbonates are. On the other hand, open desert areas in southwestern areas had the lowest percentages.


Fig. 4.10 Average percentages of minerals dolomite, March 2010

Fallen dust in Kuwait contains a considerable percentage of dolomite (up to 15%). Higher percentages of dolomite indicate lower aeolian activity in the area. The Dibdibah Formation contains calcretes and dolcretes as a major source of dolomite dust. During March, carbonates, including dolomite, were lowest in the five major areas indicated on the map. Dolomite, as a major constituent of carbonates in Kuwait, was higher in dust in areas such as Salmi, Huwaymilyah, and Bubiyan Island due to the wind directions and speed.


Alkali and plagioclase feldspar minerals within fallen dust were present in considerable percentages (up to 20.3%) during March. Feldspars are soft (6 on the Moho Hardness scale) and are a major component of rock-forming minerals. Feldspars are easily disintegrated and transported in the form of dust over long distances. In March, higher percentages were noted in areas low in carbonates, such as Liyah, Wafra, and Bubiyan Island.


Fig. 4.12 Average percentages of quartz, March 2010

Quartz mineral in dust particles was present in high percentages of up to 70% during March, but lower than in summertime. Quartz is highly resistant to disintegration and is classified as hard on the Moho Hardness scale. Quartz is a major component of rock-forming minerals. During March, some areas, such as Liyah, Kabd, and Dibdibah, had higher percentages of quartz, which indicate higher aeolian activities in these regions compared with other regions. Furthermore, during March, fallen dust that contains a higher percentage of quartz indicates a low carbonate content.


Calcite mineral concentrations in dust fallout during summer differed compared with winter and spring. Higher percentages of calcite were evident in the coastal areas and major wind corridor in Kuwait, reaching up to 40%. Calcite, in higher percentages, covered smaller areas than in winter. This difference is attributed to an increase in aeolian activity during summertime, which causes a decrease of calcite and carbonates in dust fallout content.


Fig. 4.14 Average percentages of carbonate, June 2010

Carbonate minerals are present in lower percentages of up to 49.7% in July. The low levels of carbonates in dust are good indicators of high aeolian activity in the area during summer. Higher percentages of carbonates within dust in Kuwait were found in areas such as Salmi, Huwaymilyah, and Atraf due to the wind direction and speed within this month, which was predominantly from the northwest. Calcretes and dolcretes within the Dibdibah Formation act as a major source of carbonate dust in the open desert of Kuwait.


There are small percentages of clay minerals within dust fallout in Kuwait. The percentage of clay minerals, in general, is lowest in June (up to 3.7%). Clay minerals, as a minor constituent of dust in Kuwait, are higher in percentage in the coastal area and around wadis, playas, and sabkhas, as these represent major local sources of dust in Kuwait.


Fig. 4.16 Average percentages of dolomite, June 2010

There is a considerable percentage of dolomite within fallen dust in Kuwait (up to 13%). Higher percentages of dolomite indicate lower aeolian activity in the area. The Dibdibah Formation contains calcretes and dolcretes as a major source of dolomite dust. During summer, carbonates, including dolomite, are in low percentages within areas affected by active aeolian processes. Dolomite, as a significant constituent of carbonates in Kuwait, was higher in dust in areas such as Salmi, Subiyah, and Atraf due to wind directions and wind speed for these months.


Aeolian activities increase during summer, resulting in an increase in quartz percentages at the expense of other minerals, including alkali and plagioclase feldspar minerals. The dust in Kuwait contains considerable amounts of feldspar minerals. The percentage of feldspars, in general, is lowest during June. Feldspars reach up to 26.7% on Bubiyan Island and preserved areas such as Kabd, Um Rimam, and west Roudhtain. This level is attributed to the effect of native vegetation in controlling quartz but not feldspar minerals.


Fig. 4.18 Average percentages of quartz, June 2010

The western, northwestern, and southwestern areas of Kuwait had higher percentages of quartz (up to 66.6%). Furthermore, the wind corridor had a higher percentage of quartz among the dust samples. The coastal areas and Bubiyan Island had lower amounts of quartz within the dust samples. Active aeolian processes play a major role in increasing quartz percentages within Kuwait during June. Extensive areas during June and summertime experience higher percentages of quartz.


In September, calcite, as an essential carbonate mineral, had lower percentages along the northwestern sides of Kuwait and the major wind corridor. Higher percentage rates of up to 18% were evident in coastal areas and protected habitats. The reason for this presence of calcite with carbonates, feldspars, and clay minerals within protected habitats is due to calcite's light density, meaning it can easily be carried by the wind. Calcite is usually found more in smaller size fractions than quartz, which is predominantly found with medium and fine sand size fractions. Furthermore, the calcite map indicates three areas with higher percentages for all carbonates and clay minerals with dust samples in September, namely Shuaiba, Ritqa, and Liyah.


Fig. 4.20 Average percentages of carbonate, September 2010

The coastal areas, including Bubiyan Island, had the highest percentages of carbonates (up to 43.3%) of the total weight of dust samples during September. In September, large areas of Kuwait experienced lower percentage rates of carbonates. The wind corridor, western, and northwestern areas had the lowest percentages (as little as 5%) of the total weight of dust samples. The higher percentages of carbonates indicate higher percentages of low size fraction (mainly silt and clay), and higher BET-surface area for dust samples.

The distribution map of clay minerals reveals that the higher percentages are nearly the same as for carbonate minerals during September 2010. The only exception is urban areas, such as Salmiya, which had lower quantities of clay minerals. Areas that experience high aeolian activities, such as the western and northwestern areas of Kuwait, had lower quantities of clay minerals. In September, clay reached up to 11.4% of the total weight of dust samples, mainly in areas such as Bubiyan Island, Um Niqa, and Um Eish.


Fig. 4.22 Average percentages of dolomite, September 2010

In September, dolomite, like other carbonates and clay minerals, had lower percentages along the northwestern side of Kuwait and within the major wind corridor. Higher percentage rates of up to 18% were evident in the coastal and preserved areas. The reason for the presence of higher percentages of dolomite with carbonates, feldspars, and clay minerals within preserved areas is due to dolomite's low density, meaning it can easily be carried by the wind, as it is usually found more within the smaller size fractions when compared with quartz, which is predominantly found with medium and fine sand size fractions.


The feldspar mineral percentages map for September 2010 is nearly opposite to the quartz percentages map for the same month. The feldspar mineral percentages were higher in coastal areas, mainly along the northeastern sides of Kuwait, including Bubiyan Island, Mutla, and around Kuwait Bay. The lowest quantities were along the northwestern and western sides of Kuwait, mainly in Ratqa, Huwaymilyah. The percentages of feldspar reach up to 28.8%. Feldspar minerals disintegrate rapidly, with low hardness on the Moho scale. Therefore, feldspar usually comes from local sources and travels only short distances.


Fig. 4.24 Average percentages of quartz, September 2010

During September, the quartz percentages were higher along the northwestern and western sides of Kuwait, mainly in Ratqa, Huwaymilyah, and Wafra. The lowest quantities were recorded along the coastal areas, Bubiyan Island, Salmiya, and Mutla. The percentages of quartz reached up to 88.4%, indicating that some areas experienced greater aeolian activity, especially those located within active wind corridors in Kuwait.


Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.

# 5 Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP)

Ali Al-Dousari, Fatin Al-Mutawaa, Hanan Al-Mansour, and Badreya Mandekar

### Abstract


# ICP (Inductively Coupled Plasma) Spectrometry Analysis

The crushed powder from defined dust particle size fractions was analyzed using ICP to identify major and trace elements. The reason for using ICP to analyze major elements was

#### F. Al-Mutawaa

e-mail: fmutawa@kisr.edu.kw

#### H. Al-Mansour

### B. Mandekar

Analytical Chemistry Division, General Department of Criminal Evidence, Criminal Secure, Ministry of Interior, P.O. Box 11 Safat, 13001, Kuwait e-mail: bedraya.mandekar@moi.gov.kw

© The Author(s) 2021 A. Al-Dousari (ed.), Atlas of Fallen Dust in Kuwait, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66977-5\_5

because some samples had less weight than needed (7 g) for analysis by XRF, while only 2 g (±0.05) of powder is used in the ICP method. The method used for dissolved sediment samples for ICP involved open evaporation of the sample with hydrofluoric acid, together with nitric acid (HNO3), in a platinum crucible.

The ICP was used to determine the concentrations of trace elements and six major elements: (Al, Fe, Mg, Ca, Na, and K) and five minor elements (Ba, Cr, V, Ti, and Pb). The amounts are quoted in parts per million (ppm) (Fig. 5.1).

# Iron (Fe)

Iron (Fe) plays a major role in the biochemical reactions within a marine environment and acts as a major feeder to microorganisms (e.g., phytoplankton, cyanobacteria). The average amount of iron within fallen dust varies from 13,000 to 57,000 ppm. The distribution of areas with higher concentrations of iron indicates the effect of northeastern wind coming from the Zagros Mountains. The southern coastal areas had the highest concentrations of iron. There were some areas with high iron concentrations in a straight line from Bubiyan Island in the northeast toward Atraf in the southeast. The lowest concentration of iron in Kuwait was recorded in March and September, while the highest was in December (Figs. 5.1 and 5.2).


A. Al-Dousari (&)

Crisis Decision Supports Program (CDS), Environment and Life Sciences Research Center (ELSRC), Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR), P.O. Box 24885 Safat, 13109, Kuwait e-mail: adousari@kisr.edu.kw

Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials Program (NAM), Energy and Building Research Center (EBRC), Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR), P.O. Box 24885 Safat, 13109, Kuwait

Environmental Pollution and Climate Program (EPCP), Environment and Life Sciences Research Center (ELSRC), Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR), P.O. Box 24885 Safat, 13109, Kuwait e-mail: hsultan@kisr.edu.kw

# Aluminum (Al)

Aluminum as an element is a major indication of higher concentrations of alkali and plagioclase feldspar minerals. The average amount of aluminum within fallen dust varies from 3000 ppm to more than 80,000 ppm (average: 41,246 ppm). The distribution of areas with higher concentrations of aluminum is sporadic and without trend. September was an exceptional case; the Western Desert areas had lower concentrations than the coastal areas. The lowest concentration in Kuwait was in September, while the highest was in December (Figs. 5.3 and 5.4).


# Barium (Ba)

Barium (Ba) as an element is a major indication of higher concentrations of alkali and plagioclase feldspar minerals. The average amount of aluminum within fallen dust varies from 3000 ppm to more than 80,000 ppm (average: 41,246 ppm). The distribution of areas with higher concentrations of Ba was found mainly in three locations: Abdulli, Shuaiba, and northern Kuwait Bay in Sabah Al-Ahmed National Reserve. The lowest concentration in Kuwait was

Fig. 5.1 Average iron (Fe) content in ppm within fallen dust in Kuwait (2010)

recorded in June, while the highest was in March and September (Figs. 5.5 and 5.6).


# Calcium (Ca)

Calcium (Ca) as an element is a major indication of higher concentrations of plagioclase feldspars and heavy minerals. The average amount of calcium within fallen dust varies from 1247 ppm to more than 115,500 ppm (average: 48,318 ppm). The higher distribution areas cover most of Kuwait, but, on average, the northern areas had higher concentrations than southern Kuwait. The lowest concentration in Kuwait was in June, while the highest was in December (Figs. 5.7 and 5.8).


Fig. 5.2 Fe content in ppm within fallen dust in Kuwait (2010)

# Chromium (Cr)

Chromium with iron plays a major role in the biochemical reactions within marine environments and acts as a major feeder to microorganisms (e.g., phytoplankton, cyanobacteria). The average amount of chromium within fallen dust varies from 28 to 2128 ppm. The chromium higher distribution areas are similar to that of iron. Bubiyan Island and areas around Kuwait Bay were the highest areas of chromium. The lowest concentration in Kuwait was in December, while the highest was in September (Figs. 5.9 and 5.10).


# Potassium (K)

Potassium (K) as an element is a major indication of higher concentrations of alkali feldspar minerals. The average amount of potassium within fallen dust varies from 848 ppm to more than 178,600 ppm (average: 18,035 ppm). The higher distribution areas of potassium are associated with major wind corridors in western (Salmi) and northeastern areas (Bubiyan and Subiyah) in Kuwait. The lowest concentration in Kuwait was in June, while the highest was in September and December (Figs. 5.11 and 5.12).


# Magnesium (Mg)

The presence of magnesium (Mg) as an element indicates higher concentrations of heavy minerals. The average amount of magnesium within fallen dust varies from 1247 ppm to more than 115,500 ppm (average: 48,318 ppm). Magnesium's higher distribution areas are in the northern and northeastern sides of Kuwait more than in the south and far west. The lowest concentration in Kuwait was in September, while the highest was recorded in March (springtime with low wind activity) (Figs. 5.13 and 5.14).


# Sodium (Na)

The presence of sodium (Na) as an element indicates higher concentrations of alkali feldspar minerals and salt content within dust samples. The average amount of sodium within the fallen dust varies from 941 ppm to more than 62,700 ppm (average: 9091 ppm). The sodium higher

Fig. 5.4 Al content in ppm within fallen dust in Kuwait (2010)

distribution areas are associated with major wind corridors in northwestern areas (Um Al Madafi), with low concentrations in farms and preserved areas with dense vegetation. The lowest concentration in Kuwait was in March, while the highest was in June (Figs. 5.15 and 5.16).


# Lead (Pb)

The presence of lead (Pb) and magnesium (Mg) as elements indicates higher concentrations of heavy minerals within the dust. The average amount of lead within fallen dust varies from 6 ppm to more than 8500 ppm (average: 2168 ppm). Lead's higher distribution areas cover the northeastern sides of Kuwait more than the south and far west, which might offer some indications regarding the source areas, especially the Mesopotamian Floodplain and the Zagros Mountains. The lowest concentrations in Kuwait were in December and September, while the highest was in March. Furthermore, there is another trend: a high lead concentration that extends from Um Al Madafi toward Atraf in Kuwait (Figs. 5.17 and 5.18).


# Titanium (Ti)

The average amount of titanium within the fallen dust varies from 4 ppm to 8873 ppm (average: 2328 ppm). The presence of titanium as an element indicates higher concentrations of heavy minerals within dust. The titanium distribution was higher in areas around Kuwait Bay, western areas, and the southern coastal zone of Kuwait, indicating higher concentrations than in the northern and central areas of Kuwait. The lowest concentration in Kuwait was in summer, during September and June, while the highest was in December and March (Figs. 5.19 and 5.20).


Fig. 5.6 Ba content in ppm within fallen dust in Kuwait (2010)

# Vanadium (V)

The average amount of vanadium (V) within fallen dust varies from 11 to 153 ppm (average: 2328 ppm), which is the lowest concentration (in addition to thallium [TL]) of all the detected elements within dust fallout. The presence of vanadium as an element indicates higher concentrations of heavy minerals within dust. The highest distribution of vanadium was present around the coastal zone and northeastern areas of Kuwait. The lowest concentration in Kuwait

was in December, while the highest was in March (Figs. 5.21 and 5.22).


Fig. 5.7 Average calcium (Ca) content in ppm within fallen dust in Kuwait (2010)

Fig. 5.8 Ca content in ppm within fallen dust in Kuwait (2010)

Fig. 5.8 (continued)

Fig. 5.9 Average chromium (Cr) content in ppm within fallen dust in Kuwait (2010)

Fig. 5.10 Cr content in ppm within fallen dust in Kuwait (2010)

Fig. 5.11 Average potassium (K) content in ppm within fallen dust in Kuwait (2010)

Fig. 5.12 K content in ppm within fallen dust in Kuwait (2010)

Fig. 5.12 (continued)

Fig. 5.13 Average magnesium (Mg) content in ppm within fallen dust in Kuwait (2010)

Fig. 5.14 Mg content in ppm within fallen dust in Kuwait (2010)

Fig. 5.15 Average sodium (Na) content in ppm within fallen dust in Kuwait (2010)

Fig. 5.16 Na content in ppm within fallen dust in Kuwait (2010)

Fig. 5.16 (continued)

Fig. 5.17 Average lead (Pb) content in ppm within fallen dust in Kuwait (2010)

Fig. 5.18 Pb content in ppm within fallen dust in Kuwait (2010)

Fig. 5.19 Average titanium (Ti) content in ppm within fallen dust in Kuwait (2010)

Fig. 5.20 Ti content in ppm within fallen dust in Kuwait (2010)

Fig. 5.20 (continued)

Fig. 5.21 Average vanadium (V) content in ppm within fallen dust in Kuwait (2010)

Fig. 5.22 V content in ppm within fallen dust in Kuwait (2010)

Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.

# 6 Deposited Rates of Radionuclides

Abdulaziz Aba, Anfal Ismaeel, Aisha Al-Boloushi, Hanadi Al-Shimary, and Omar Al-Boloushi

### Abstract


# Radionuclides

# Methodology

# Temporal and Spatial Distribution of Radionuclides in Dust Fallout

The depositional fluxes of the natural radionuclides (40K, 210Pb, and <sup>7</sup> Be) and the man-made radionuclides (137Cs) were calculated using efficiency-calibrated ultralow

Crisis Decision Supports Program (CDS), Environment and Life Sciences Research Center (ELSRC), Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR), P.O. Box 24885 13109 Safat, Kuwait e-mail: aaba@kisr.edu.kw

A. Ismaeel e-mail: aismaeel@kisr.edu.kw

A. Al-Boloushi e-mail: aboloushi@kisr.edu.kw

H. Al-Shimary e-mail: hshammari@kisr.edu.kw

O. Al-Boloushi e-mail: oboloushi@kisr.edu.kw

© The Author(s) 2021 A. Al-Dousari (ed.), Atlas of Fallen Dust in Kuwait, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66977-5\_6

background gamma spectrometry in nine sampling sites covering Kuwait (Fig. 6.1). The dust fallout samples were collected on a monthly basis. Four collectors were installed in each sampling location to collect the adequate sample mass required for radioactivity analysis. The composite samples were subjected to long counting times regarding attaining an acceptable detection limit and to resolve very low-intensity peaks.

The collected gamma spectra were analyzed by Genie-2000 (Canberra Inc, USA) using the spectral lines of the most intense gamma energy lines. The decay correction and building-up factor of <sup>7</sup> Be during the sampling period (almost 30 days) were considered due to the relatively short half life of 7 Be. The concentration of radionuclides in dry deposition fluxes (Bq m−<sup>2</sup> ) per month was determined by multiplying their specific activities in Bq g−<sup>1</sup> with the weight per unit area of the collector (g m−<sup>2</sup> ) during sampling time (30 days).

The variety of all of the calculated radionuclides and depositional fluxes revealed a temporal tendency (i.e., highest in the spring months [February, March, April], when the precipitation rates are highest, and hence, more dust is washed out and the lowest in October–November of each year) (Fig. 6.2). The correlation of depositional dust fallout and the radionuclides fluxes was in the order of 40K; 137Cs ; 210Pb and <sup>7</sup> Be. The strongest correlation was with the terrestrial origin 40K (0.92), and the weakest was with the cosmogenic origin <sup>7</sup> Be (0.67).

On the other hand, the spatial distributions of radionuclide depositional fluxes showed a site-dependent relationship that is similar to the spatial dust fallout: highest in the interior areas and gradually decreasing along the coastal line. Nevertheless, an exception of the cosmogenic radionuclide 7 Be distribution was observed in some months because of possibly different climatologically conditions.

The averages of the depositional fluxes of similar months were gridded using the GIS (ArcGIS) software package and presented as averages on a monthly basis from October 2009 to August 2011.

A. Aba (&) A. Ismaeel A. Al-Boloushi H. Al-Shimary O. Al-Boloushi

#### 1. Monthly spatial distribution of <sup>7</sup> Be

Figures 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 6.7, 6.8, 6.9, 6.10, 6.11, 6.12, 6.13, 6.14 and 6.15 show the annual and monthly spatial deposition rates of the <sup>7</sup> Be radionuclide in dust fallout during October 2009–October 2011. The minimum monthly deposition fluxes (2.4 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> ) were observed in December, when the precipitation was the lowest. In contrast, the high concentration during the spring season (March–April–May) was due to rainfall during the period supporting the theory of wet precipitation commonly associated with the mixing of stratospheric and tropospheric air masses (Daish et al. 2005). In spring time, a rapid removal from lower polar troposphere to the troposphere at the northern hemisphere is well known (UNSCEAR 2000) and, possibly due to the folding of the troposphere during April and May at mid-latitude (30–50), enhances the removal of the stratospheric <sup>7</sup> Be into the troposphere (Viezee and Singh 1980; Kritz et al. 1991). However, in contrast, the spatial distribution in the fall months (September–October–November) might be due to the effect of southeasterly wind contribution. The highest monthly readings (76.5 and 184 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> ) were observed in January and April, respectively, due to the effect of a washout by precipitation.

# 2. Temporal, spatial distribution of 137Cs

137Cs is a human-made radionuclide with a half life of 30 years. It was produced during the atmospheric testing of thermonuclear weapons in the period extending from the mid-1950s to the 1980s. Global fallout of 137Cs began in 1954, peaked in the early 1960s and subsequently decreased, reaching near-zero levels in the mid-1980s. Fallout levels were globally variable, reflecting both annual precipitation amount and location relative to the main weapons tests (Walling 2002). Smaller amounts of 137Cs have been released into the atmosphere by catastrophes at nuclear power plants, notably the Chernobyl disaster in 1986, which resulted in additional outputs of 137Cs fallout over large areas of Europe and adjacent regions. However, wide measurements of 137Cs concentration have also been carried out in Kuwaiti aerosol, in cooperation with the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) from 1995 to 1999. The reported 137Cs concentration in the air was between 1.44 and 107.84, with an average value of 10.6 lBq m−<sup>3</sup> (Biegalski et al. 2001).

Figures 6.16, 6.17, 6.18, 6.19, 6.20, 6.21, 6.22, 6.23, 6.24, 6.25, 6.26, 6.27 and 6.28 illustrate the annual and monthly spatial deposition rates of 137Cs, which display similar behavior to 210Pb and <sup>7</sup> Be variations. The correlation coefficients of 137Cs/210Pb and 137Cs/7 Be were 0.87 and 0.94, respectively. The average monthly deposition rates varied from 0.02 to 4.18 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , while the annual deposition rates varied from 0.2 to 50.21 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> . Based on the previous observations (e.g., the influence of precipitation, wind direction, and depositional dust rates), the dominant source of 137Cs fallout is the transportation of dust by the northwesterly wind, as the areas of northern Europe and eastern Mediterranean are most affected by 137Cs fallout (nuclear bomb tests and Chernobyl accident), more so than the Gulf Region.

# 3. Temporal, spatial distribution of40K

Figures 6.29, 6.30, 6.31, 6.32, 6.33, 6.34, 6.35, 6.36, 6.37, 6.38, 6.39, 6.40 and 6.41 illustrate the annual and monthly spatial deposition rates of 40K radionuclide in dust fallout. The highest 40K concentrations were observed in spring months, when it reached a maximum in March 2011 (96.27 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> ) and the lowest in fall (1.8 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> ), which is quite consistent with the dust loadings of the corresponding months. The annual variations of 40K concentration in dust fallout varied from 74 to 557 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , as presented in Fig. 6.29. This quantity of the 40K deposition rate corresponds to about 412 Bq kg−<sup>1</sup> and the average measured 40K concentration in Kuwaiti soil is 365 Bq kg<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> , which is similar to the worldwide average concentration (420 Bq kg−1) (UNSCEAR 2000). The distribution of 40K monthly and seasonal variations displays similar behavior to the dust fallout trend. However, the site specificity of 40K is very similar to the dust deposition distribution, which is very low in the coastal zone, significantly increasing in the southwest of the country.

# 4. Temporal, spatial distribution of 210Pb

Figures 6.42, 6.43, 6.44, 6.45, 6.46, 6.47, 6.48, 6.49, 6.50, 6.51, 6.52, 6.53 and 6.54 illustrate the annual and monthly spatial deposition rates of 210Pb radionuclide in dust fallout from October 2009 to October 2011. The highest 210Pb concentrations were observed in spring (41.4 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> ) and the lowest in fall (1.8 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> ), which is quite consistent with the dust loadings of the corresponding months. However, the wet precipitation associated with Sarrayat and Koss played a major role in obtaining these high deposition fluxes (Aba et al. 2016, 2018; Al-Dousari et al. 2016). The monthly deposition ratios of <sup>7</sup> Be and 210Pb are largely consistent with the dust loading in the corresponding months. However, an extreme deposition rate (63 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> ) was observed in March 2011, when an exotic storm hit Kuwait.

# Samples Locations

Figure 6.1.

# Temporal Variations of Radionuclides

Figure 6.2.

#### Annual Deposited Rates of <sup>7</sup> Be

The average annual <sup>7</sup> Be deposited rates in Kuwait from October 2009 to August 2011 varied from 339 to 481 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , with an average similar (422 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> ) to the reported data of the global model (400 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> ). The maximum rates were found in a transect width of about 50 km from north to south. The minimum rates were shown along the transect from the middle of the country down to the southeastern part. The dominant annual wind direction is northwesterly (Fig. 6.3).


Fig. 6.1 Sampling locations of dust fallout and digital elevation model of Kuwait using ASTER stereo data

Fig. 6.2 Temporal variations of radionuclide depositional fluxes in Kuwait

Fig. 6.3 Average deposited rates of <sup>7</sup> Be

#### Monthly Deposited Rates of <sup>7</sup> Be

The monthly <sup>7</sup> Be deposited rates in Kuwait January 2010– 2011 reveal a range from 13.6 to 76.5 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , with the maximum in northern areas and the lowest in southern areas. The predominant wind direction for this month was northwesterly (Fig. 6.4).


The monthly rates at which <sup>7</sup> Be were deposited in Kuwait in February 2010–2011 which reveal a range from 36.08 to 63.83 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , with three maximum spots. This possibly happened because of the effect of dust storms this month. The predominant wind direction for this month was northwesterly (Fig. 6.5).


Fig. 6.5 Average deposited rates of <sup>7</sup> Be in February (2010–2011)

The monthly <sup>7</sup> Be deposited rates in Kuwait during March 2010–2011 reveal a range from 28.63 to 57.54 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , with a maximum in the central region with the northern, western wind corridor, and the lowest in the northern area. The predominant wind direction for this month was northwesterly, with high speeds sometimes. However, the occurrence of dust storms was lower in February, as well as precipitation. Nevertheless, the effect of the exotic storm that hit Kuwait in March 2011 led to critical dynamic weather that could probably have decreased the <sup>7</sup> Be deposition flux (Fig. 6.6).


The monthly <sup>7</sup> Be deposited rates in Kuwait during April 2010–2011 reveal the highest deposited rates, with a range from 106 to 184 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , with a maximum in the northern and central areas and the lowest in eastern central areas. The major parameter affecting this high value was the higher precipitation rate in this month (Fig. 6.7).


The monthly <sup>7</sup> Be deposited rates in Kuwait during May 2010–2011 reveal a range from 27 to 69 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , with a maximum in the southern, eastern and northern areas and the lowest in the southern areas. The high values are attributed to the high precipitation rates this month that increased the dust washout (Fig. 6.8).


The monthly <sup>7</sup> Be deposited rates in Kuwait during June 2010–2011 reveal a lower rate than previous months, with a range from 4.23 to 17.32 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> . The maximum rates were in the northern and western areas, while the lowest were in

Fig. 6.7 Average deposited rates of <sup>7</sup> Be in April (2010–2011)

Fig. 6.8 Average deposited rates of <sup>7</sup> Be in May (2010–2011)

the southern and eastern areas. The predominant wind direction for this month was northwesterly, with no precipitation events (Fig. 6.9).


Similar to June, the monthly <sup>7</sup> Be deposited rates in Kuwait during July 2010–2011 reveal lower rates than previous months, with a range from 3.71 to 11.78 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> . The maximum rates were in the northern eastern areas and the lowest in the southern and northeastern areas. The predominant wind direction for this month was northwesterly, with no precipitation events to impact wind from other directions (Fig. 6.10).


Similar to June and July, the monthly <sup>7</sup> Be deposited rates in Kuwait during August 2010–2011 reveal a range from 3.66 to 29.49 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , with a maximum in the northern areas and the lowest in the southeastern area (Fig. 6.11).


Similar to the summer months, the monthly <sup>7</sup> Be deposited rates in Kuwait during September 2010–2011 reveal low rates, ranging from 2.44 to 11.6 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , with the maximum in the northern areas and the lowest in the southern and southeastern areas (Fig. 6.12).


Similar to the summer months, the monthly <sup>7</sup> Be rates deposited in Kuwait during October 2009–2010 reveal a lower rate, ranging from 5.59 to 16.09 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , with a maximum in northeast areas, and lowest in the southern areas (Fig. 6.13).


The monthly <sup>7</sup> Be deposited rates in Kuwait during November 2009–2010 reveal moderate rates that range from 4.53 to 48.04 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , with the maximum in the central areas and the lowest in the southern, northern, and northwestern regions. The predominant wind direction was northwesterly at a minimum speed (Fig. 6.14).


The monthly <sup>7</sup> Be rates deposited in Kuwait during December 2009–2010 reveal moderate rates that range from 3.69 to 46.96 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , with the maximum in the central and central western areas and the lowest in the central southern areas. The predominant wind direction was northwesterly at high speed (Fig. 6.15).

Fig. 6.15 Average deposited rates of <sup>7</sup> Be in December (2009– 2010)


# Annual Deposited Rates of 137Cs

The average annual 137Cs rates deposited in Kuwait from October 2009 to August 2011 varied from 0.2 to 4.18 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , with an average of 4.76 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> . The maximum rates were in southwestern areas. The 137Cs rates deposited gradually decreased from the interior to the coastal areas, where they reached the minimum value. The predominant annual wind direction was northwesterly (Fig. 6.16).


# Monthly Deposited Rates of 137Cs

The monthly 137Cs rates deposited in Kuwait during January 2010–2011 reveal a range from 0.1 to 0.39 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , with the maximum in central and southwestern areas and the lowest in southern areas of the Wafra Farms. The predominant wind direction for this month was northwesterly, with high wind speed sometimes (Fig. 6.17).


The monthly 137Cs deposited rates in Kuwait during February 2010–2011 varied from 0.21 to 0.54 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , with two high deposition rate spots. This possibly happened because of the effect of the dust storms in this month. The predominant wind direction for this month was northwesterly, and the precipitation rates were low (Fig. 6.18).


(continued)

Fig. 6.16 Average deposited rates of 137Cs in (Oct 2009–Aug 2011)


The monthly 137Cs rates deposited in Kuwait during March 2010–2011 reveal a high range that varied from 0.26 to 2.35 Bq m<sup>2</sup> , with the maximum in the southwestern area and the lowest in the northern and southern regions. The predominant wind direction for this month was northwesterly, with high speed sometimes. However, the highest deposition flux was reported in this month due to the effect of the exotic storm that hit Kuwait, in addition to the high precipitation recorded (Fig. 6.19).


The monthly 137Cs rates deposited in Kuwait during April 2010–2011 ranged from 0.67 to 1.4 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , which is considered high, but it is less than March due to lower precipitation. The predominant wind direction was northwesterly, with a high wind speed of northeasterly, easterly, and southeasterly direction (Fig. 6.20).


The monthly 137Cs rates deposited in Kuwait during May 2010–2011 ranged from 0.22 to 2.23 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , with the maximum in the southeastern and central regions. The lowest deposition fluxes were in the southern and eastern areas. However, the slightly high deposition flux in this month was due to the effect of the exotic storm that hit Kuwait on March 25, 2011 (Fig. 6.21).


The monthly 137Cs deposited rates in Kuwait during June 2010–2011 display similar rates to previous months, but with lower minimum rates, the range varied from 0.06 to 1.3 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> . The maximum rates were in southeast areas, and the lowest was in central areas. The predominant wind direction for this month was northwesterly, with no precipitation events (Fig. 6.22).


The monthly 137Cs rates deposited in Kuwait during July 2010–2011 showed similar rates to the other summer months. The range of deposition flux varied between 0.09 and 1.39 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> . The maximum rates were in northeastern areas and the lowestin southern and northeastern areas. The predominant wind direction for this month was northwesterly, with no precipitation events that impact wind from other directions (Fig. 6.23).



The monthly 137Cs rates deposited in Kuwait during August 2010–2011 showed similar rates in June and July, with a range that varied from 0.07 to 1.23 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , with the maximum in the southwestern areas and the lowest in the southern areas (Fig. 6.24).


Similar to the summer months, the monthly 137Cs rates deposited in Kuwait during September 2010–2011 ranged from 0.05 to 0.87 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , with the maximum in southwestern areas and the lowest in northern and central areas. The predominant wind direction in this month was northwesterly, with no contribution from other directions (Fig. 6.25).

Similar to the summer months, the monthly 137Cs rates deposited in Kuwait during October 2010–2011 ranged from 0.07 to 0.72 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , with the maximum in southwestern areas and the lowest in northern and central eastern areas. The predominant wind direction in this month was northwesterly, with no contribution from other directions (Fig. 6.26).


The monthly 137Cs rates deposited in Kuwait during November 2009–2010 showed moderate rates ranging from 0.06 to 1.54 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , with the maximum in the central and eastern areas and the lowest in southern areas. The predominant wind direction was northwesterly with minimum speed (Fig. 6.27).

Fig. 6.26 Average deposited rates of 137Cs in October (2009– 2010)


The monthly 137Cs rates deposited in Kuwait during December 2009–2010 reveals lower rates than during summer. The deposition rates varied from 0.04 to 0.17 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , with the maximum value observed along the transect from the central to southwestern areas. The predominant wind direction was northwesterly, with high speed at times (Fig. 6.28).


# Annual Deposited Rates of 40K

The average annual 40K deposited rates in Kuwait from October 2009 to August 2011 varied from 74 to 557 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , with an average of about 160 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> . The maximum rates were found in the southwestern areas. The 40K

deposited rates gradually decreased from the interior to the coastal areas, where it reached the minimum. The predominant annual wind direction was northwesterly (Fig. 6.29).


# Monthly Deposited Rates of 40K

The monthly 40K deposited rates in Kuwait during January 2010–2011 ranged from 1.14 to 15.62 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , with the maximum in southeastern and western areas, and the lowest was in the central areas. The predominant wind direction for this month was northwesterly, with high wind speed at times (Fig. 6.30).


The monthly 40K rates deposited in Kuwait during February 2010–2011 varied from 3.13 to 23.0 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , with a high deposition rate noted in southeastern areas. This possibly happened because of dust storms that occurred in this month. The predominant wind direction for this month was northwesterly, and the precipitation rates were low (Fig. 6.31).


The monthly 40K rates deposited in Kuwait during March 2010–2011 had a high range that varied from 5.19 to 96.27 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , with the maximum in the southwestern area and the lowest in the northern and southern areas. The predominant wind direction for this month was northwesterly, with high speed registered at times. However, the highest deposition flux was reported in this month because of the effect of the exotic storm that hit Kuwait, in addition to high precipitation (Fig. 6.32).


The monthly 40K rates deposited in Kuwait during April 2010–2011 ranged from 12.88 to 69.77 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , which is considered high but is lower than the rates in March due to lower precipitation rates. A spot with high deposition rates was found in the central areas. The predominant wind

direction was northwesterly, with a high wind speed of northeastern, eastern, and southeastern wind contribution. The critical dynamic weather due to Koss and Sarrayat that occurred in spring contributed toward the high deposition rates (Fig. 6.33).


The monthly 40K rates deposited in Kuwait during May 2010–2011 ranged from 5.12 to 70.63 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , with the maximum in southeastern and central areas. This range is similar to the other spring months, in which the critical dynamics weather due to Koss and Sarrayat contributed toward high deposition rates. The lowest deposition fluxes were in southern and eastern areas. However, the high

deposition flux this month was due to the effect of the exotic storm that hit Kuwait on March 25, 2011 (Fig. 6.34).


The monthly 40K deposited rates in Kuwait during June 2010–2011 had similar rates as previous months, but with lower minimum rates, the range varied from 4.53 to 60.43 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> . The maximum rates were in southeastern areas, and the lowest was in coastal areas. The predominant wind direction for this month was northwesterly, with no precipitation events (Fig. 6.35).


The monthly 40K rates deposited in Kuwait during July 2010–2011 were similar to the other summer months. The range of deposition varied between 2.31 and 61.76 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> . The maximum rates were in southeastern areas, and the lowest rates were in southern and northeastern areas. The

predominant wind direction for this month was northwesterly, with no precipitation events or impact wind from other directions (Fig. 6.36).


The monthly 40K rates deposited in Kuwait during August 2010–2011 had a similar trend to June and July, with a low range that varied from 2.23 to 27.63 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , with the maximum in southwestern areas. The predominant wind direction was northwesterly, with a minor contribution made by southeastern wind (Fig. 6.37).


Similar to the summer months, the monthly 40K rates deposited in Kuwait during September 2010–2011 ranged from 1.55 to 41.61 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , with the maximum recorded in southwestern areas and the lowest recorded in northern and central coastal areas. The predominant wind direction in this

month was northwesterly, with no contribution from other directions (Fig. 6.38).


Similar to summer, the monthly 40K rates deposited in Kuwait during October 2010–2011 ranged from 1.56 to 61.32 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , with the maximum in southwestern areas and the lowest in northern and central eastern areas. The predominant wind direction of this month was northwesterly, with no contribution from other directions (Fig. 6.39).


The monthly 40K rates deposited in Kuwait during November 2009–2010 were low, ranging from 1.28 to

21.28 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , with the maximum in the central and southwestern areas and the lowest in the southern and northern areas. The predominant wind direction was northwesterly, with high speed recorded at times (Fig. 6.40).


The monthly 40K rates deposited in Kuwait during December 2009–2010 were moderate and ranged from 1.91 to 31.12 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , with the maximum in the southwestern areas and the lowest in the southern areas. The predominant wind direction was northwesterly, with high speed at times (Fig. 6.41).


Fig. 6.41 Average deposited rates of 40K in December (2009– 2010)

# Annual Deposited Rates of 210Pb

The average annual 210Pb rates deposited in Kuwait from October 2009 to August 2011 varied from 107 to 233 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , with an average of about 134 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , which is close to the reported 210Pb annual deposition rates on the continent between 10° and 30° N latitude (160 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> ). The maximum rates were in the southeastern part of the country (Shaqaya). The minimum rates were along the coastal areas. A maximum of 210Pb deposition flux was revealed in the spring months; when the precipitation was high, the predominant annual wind direction was northwesterly (Fig. 6.42).


# Monthly Deposited Rates of 210Pb

The monthly 210Pb deposited rates in Kuwait during January 2010–2011 ranged from 4.9 to 16.73 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , with the maximum in central areas and the lowest in southern areas. The predominant wind direction for this month was northwesterly (Fig. 6.43).


The monthly 210Pb rates deposited in Kuwait during February 2010–2011 ranged from 9.39 to 16.6 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , with three maximum spots. This is possibly visible because of the effect of dust storms this month. The predominant wind direction for this month was northwesterly, and the precipitation rates were lower (Fig. 6.44).


The monthly 210Pb deposited rates in Kuwait during February 2010–2011 ranged from 9.39 to 16.6 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , with three maximum spots. This is possibly visible because of the effect of dust storms this month. The predominant wind direction for this month was northwesterly, and the precipitation rates were lower (Fig. 6.45).


The monthly 210Pb deposited rates in Kuwait during April 2010–2011 ranged from 22.36 to 41.38 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> . The major parameter affecting this high value was the high precipitation rate. The predominant wind direction was northwesterly,

with a high wind speed of northeastern, eastern, and southeastern wind contribution (Fig. 6.46).



The monthly 210Pb rates deposited in Kuwait during May 2010–2011 ranged from 8.19 to 30.44 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , with the

Fig. 6.46 Average deposited rates of 210Pb in April (2010– 2011)

maximum in the southeastern and central areas. The lowest deposition fluxes were in the southern and eastern areas. However, the slightly high deposition flux in this month was because of the effect of the exotic that storm hit Kuwait on March 25, 2011 (Fig. 6.47).


The monthly 210Pb rates deposited in Kuwait during June 2010–2011 were lower compared with previous months, with a range from 4.17 to 20.2 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> . The maximum rates were in the southeastern areas and the lowest in the central areas. The predominant wind direction for this month was northwesterly, with no precipitation events (Fig. 6.48).


Similar to June, the monthly 210Pb deposited rates in Kuwait during July 2010–2011 were lower when compared with previous months. The range of deposition fluxes varied

between 3.09 and 15.48 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> . The maximum rates were in the northeastern areas and the lowest in the southern and northeastern areas. The predominant wind direction for this month was northwesterly, with no precipitation events or impact wind from other directions (Fig. 6.49).


The monthly 210Pb deposited rates in Kuwait during August 2010–2011 were lower than in June and July, with a range that varied from 2.16 to 9.72 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , with the maximum in the northern and southwestern areas, and the lowest within the transect along the northwesterly wind corridor (Fig. 6.50).


Similar to the summer months, the monthly 210Pb deposited rates in Kuwait during September 2010–2011 had low rates that ranged from 1.8 to 10.64 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , with the

maximum in the northwestern areas and the lowest in the southern and southwestern areas. The predominant wind direction in this month was northwesterly, with no contribution from other directions (Fig. 6.51).


Similar to the summer months, the monthly 210Pb deposited rates in Kuwait during October 2009–2010 showed low rates, with a range that varied from 2.52 to 8.74 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , with the maximum in the southeastern and northern areas and the lowest along the northwesterly wind corridor (Fig. 6.52).


The monthly 210Pb deposited rates in Kuwait during November 2009–2010 were moderate, ranging from 5.25 to 14.2 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , with the maximum in the central and southeastern areas and the lowest in the southern areas. The predominant wind direction was northwesterly at a minimum speed (Fig. 6.53).


The monthly 210Pb rates deposited in Kuwait during December 2009–2010 were similar to November. The rates varied from 4.74 to 14.06 Bq m−<sup>2</sup> , with the maximum in the southwestern and central eastern areas. The predominant wind direction was northwesterly, with high speed at times (Fig. 6.54).


# Fig. 6.54 Average deposited rates of 210Pb in December (2009–2010)

# References


northeastern Arabian Gulf. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity, 192, 565–572. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvrad.2018.05.010.


Kuwait. Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry, 248(3), 643–649. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010676208657.


Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence and indicate if changes were made.

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# Mohamed Ismail Ibrahim, Ali Al-Dousari, and Abeer Hassan Al-Saleh

# Abstract


M. I. Ibrahim (&)

Faculty of Science, Alexandria University, 1 Baghdad Street, Moharam Bek, P.O. Box: 21511 Alexandria, Egypt e-mail: m.ibrahim@alexu.edu.eg

A. Al-Dousari A. H. Al-Saleh

A. H. Al-Saleh e-mail: ahsaleh@kisr.edu.kw

# Samples Collection and Preparation

Twenty-eight pairs of pollen and eolian dust traps covering the State of Kuwait (Fig. 7.1) were used. The pollen trap is a simple cylindrical container with 40 cm depth and 20 cm radius fixed at 0 cm and 240 cm from the ground level. The traps were designed to capture bouncing and suspended particles from all directions (Fig. 7.1). The sampling site locations were chosen to cover all the geomorphological sectors and native vegetation areas in Kuwait. The samples within the traps were collected on a monthly basis for a period of 23 months. The weight of the collected samples from all the dust traps was measured. Fifty grams of sand (collected from pollen trap at 0 cm from ground level) was weighted from each station and treated as follows:


Crisis Decision Supports Program (CDS), Environment and Life Sciences Research Center (ELSRC), Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR), P.O. Box: 24885 13109 Safat, Kuwait e-mail: adousari@kisr.edu.kw

Fig. 7.1 Dust tarp fixed at 240 cm above ground level (left), and pollen traps before and after fixing (right)


# Microscopic Identification

Each sample slide was analyzed for pollen particle and spore content. Each identified particle or spore was counted as the prepared slide was traversed on a mechanical stage under the high-power microscope. Then, a pollen diagram and graphical expression of pollen analysis were constructed.

A seasonal pollen diagram and/or map illustrating the pollen distribution in Kuwait was then prepared according to the following seasons:


# Climate and Vegetation

The climate of Kuwait is characterized by very hot, dry summers and cool to mild rainy winters. The rainfall pattern follows that of arid environments, being erratic and inconsistent, and showing great temporal and spatial fluctuations (Ahmed and Al-Dousari 2013). Records reveal that the average seasonal rainfall (October to April) total is 115 mm, with wide fluctuations between 29 mm and 262.7 mm. Rainfall usually occurs between November and May, while occasional showers may fall during May (Al-Dousari et al. 2020a). The mean temperature reaches its maximum during July–August (about 44°C) and its minimum during January (about 8 °C). Mean values of RH range between 90% in January and 31% in June, while the mean number of dusty days is 23 during July and nine during December (Al-Dousari et al. 2020b).

Kuwait's vegetation comprises eight units, which are described by Omar (2000) as follows:

1. HALOXYLETUM (Chenopodiaceae): It covers about 23% of the total area of Kuwait. It is dominated by the species Haloxylon salicornicum, a low shrub that grows up to 60 cm in height. The community type covers large areas in the northern and western parts of Kuwait.


as Tamarix aucheriana, Nitraria Retusa, Halocnemum strobilaceum, and Seidlitzia rosmarinus. It is found in the northern and southern coastal areas of Kuwait. The total area is about 1.5% of Kuwait.

# Results

# Total Pollen Count

Generally, pollen counts reveal a remarkable distinction between the year 2009–2010 and 2010–2011: the pollen particle concentration in 2009–2010 was higher in percentage than that of 2010–2011 (Figs. 7.4, 7.5). It is evident also that pollen counts (concentration) vary from season to season. Pollen counts over four seasons for two years (October 2009–August 2011) reveal the presence of two peaks in spring (April–May) and fall (October–November). The first peak is higher and is due to the greater number of pollen particle species that flower during the spring season, such as Chenopodiaceae, Poaceae (Gramineae), Cyperaceae, Leguminosae (Fabaceae), and Plantaginaceae. The second peak in fall (October–November) is lower and is characterized by the abundance of Chenopodiaceae and Leguminosae (Fig. 7.3).

On the other hand, two troughs are apparent during summer (July–August) and winter (January–February) due to summer drought, dust storms, and winter wind and rainfall. The summer lows are characterized by higher counts than the winter lows. In summer and fall, Chenopodiaceae dominates, followed by Leguminosae (Fig. 7.2).

Fig. 7.2 Seasonal pollen counts of the most dominant families during 2009–2010

Fig. 7.3 Seasonal pollen counts of the most dominant families during 2010–2011

Among the 28 sites, the highest counts over the two years of study were recorded at sites 13, 15, 14, and 7, in descending order, especially in fall and spring (Fig. 7.4).

Chenopodiaceae and Leguminosae together comprise over 70% of the total pollen during fall.

Local flora is the main source of the pollen load, and the concentration depends on the amount of vegetation around each station, except for a very low percentage (2–3%) of Pinaceae pollen recorded in the north and northwest of Kuwait, which could be interpreted as being transported by the northwesterly wind. Chenopodiaceae had a high percentage (90%) during fall 2009. The spring peaks are higher because of the greater number of Cyperaceae and Gramineae. Generally, the pollen count for the period 2009–2010 is higher than 2010–2011.

Twenty-eight pairs of pollen and eolian dust traps were used throughout Kuwait. The pollen trap distribution was based on two parameters:


present, in which most of the plants are present within drainage systems such as water, wadis, playas, and sabkhas.

According to the above-mentioned parameters, the pollen traps were selected.

Mohamed et al. (1983) found a highly significant correlation between the concentration of Cyperus, Plantago, and Brassicaceae pollen. Brassicaceae is a large family of plants with four-petaled flowers. For spring 2011, the pollen distribution and abundance indicate the same trend as in spring 2010, with an abundance of Cyperaceae (33.7%) followed by Chenopodiaceae (24.9%), Gramineae (19.3%), Leguminosae (12%), Plantaginaceae (3.2%), Malvaceae (1.9%), Ephedraceae (1.2%), and Brassicaceae (1.1%). The highest of all pollen noted in Kuwait during springtime was Brassicaceae, which appears mostly around farms and cultivated urban areas, such as in Wafra Farms, Liyah, and Qurain (Fig. 7.5).


Al-Dousari et al. (2018) found a highly significant correlation between the concentration of Cyperus, Plantago, and Brassicaceae pollen. Brassicaceae is a large family of plants with four-petaled flowers. For spring 2011, the pollen distribution and abundance indicate the same trend as in Fig. 7.4 Kuwait image showing the location of the pollen and dust sampling sites

Fig. 7.6 Average percentages of Brassicaceae pollen in dust. Summer (July–August 2010 and 2011)

spring 2010, with an abundance of Cyperaceae (33.7%) followed by Chenopodiaceae (24.9%), Gramineae (19.3%), Leguminosae (12%), Plantaginaceae (3.2%), Malvaceae (1.9%), Ephedraceae (1.2%), and Brassicaceae (1.1%). The highest of all pollen noted in Kuwait during springtime was Brassicaceae, which appears mostly in farms and other cultivated urban areas, such as in Kabd, Liyah, and Qurain. The distribution of Brassicaceae is similar to the distribution of other pollen during summer (Fig. 7.6).


The highest percentages of Brassicaceae pollen were noted during fall. The pollen appeared mostly around farms and cultivated urban areas, such as in Wafra Farms, Salmiya, and Qurain. The distribution of Brassicaceae is completely different from the distribution of other pollen during fall. The high distribution takes the form of a corridor that extends from Huwaymilyah to northern Kuwait Bay. There are two major wind corridors in Kuwait, one showing higher concentrations up to 48% in Huwaymilyah and the other with very low concentrations in Um Niqa. This result indicates that Brassicaceae's dominant source area is the Western Desert of Iraq, and it is rarely found in the Mesopotamian Floodplain upwind of the Um Niqa wind corridor (Fig. 7.7).


Chenopodiaceae covers about 23% of the total area of Kuwait. The most dominant pollen family reached its maximum abundance (90%) during fall 2009. The highest pollen concentrations were recorded in fall 2009 around Kuwait City, and in the southeast, northwest, and northeast of Kuwait; whereas, the lowest concentrations were recorded during winter 2010 and 2011. The most common genera are Bienertia, Brassia, Chenopodium, Cornulaca, Halocnemum, Hammada, Salsola, Seidlitzia, and Schanginia. Haloxylon salicornicum is a low dominant shrub that grows up to 60 cm in height. The community type covers large areas in the

Fig. 7.8 Average percentages of Chenopodiaceae pollen in dust. Spring (April–May 2010 and 2011)

northern and western parts of Kuwait. The average counts of Chenopodiaceae pollen in the dust during spring (April–May 2010 & 2011) reveal a similar distribution density to that of Cyperaceae pollen, which indicates a close distribution between the two dominant native plants, namely Haloxylon

salicornicum from the Chenopodiaceae family and Cyperus conglomeratus from the Cyperaceae vegetation family. Haloxylon salicornicum flourished from October until December. Haloxylon salicornicum pollen is heavy when compared with other native plants, and its pollen largely comes from local and nearby regional sources. Therefore, Haloxylon salicornicum pollen's maximum counts were in areas such as Shuaiba, Subiyah, Liyah, and Abdulli. In spring 2010 and 2011, the most abundant pollen families belonged to Cyperaceae (33.6% and 33.7%, respectively) and Chenopodiaceae (24% and 24.9%, respectively) (Fig. 7.8).


The average counts of the Chenopodiaceae pollen in the dust during summer (July–August 2010 and 2011) show similar distribution density to that in spring with Cyperaceae pollen. Summer had the lowest counts for most of the native plants' pollen. Mutla had the highest counts, as it is surrounded by preserved and protected areas that are densely vegetated by Haloxylon salicornicum. Haloxylon salicornicum pollen had the maximum counts in areas such as Shuaiba, Shuwaikh, Wafra Farm, and Um Rimam. Most of the northern borders with Iraq, the southern areas of Kuwait, and the areas around Kuwait Bay show no counts of Chenopodiaceae. Chenopodiaceae and Leguminosae together comprise over 70% of the total pollen during fall. In summer 2010 and 2011, the highest counts were from Chenopodiaceae (32.8% and 33% respectively) (Fig. 7.9).


The total area covered by the pollen community is about 7% of Kuwait. The polllen is dominated by the species Rhanterium epapposum in association with Convolvulus oxyphyllus, Moltkiopsis ciliata, Helianthemum lippi, Centropodia forsskalii, and Stipagrostis plumosa. It occurs in small patches in the northern, central, and southern parts of Kuwait. The average percentages of the composite pollen in dust during spring (April–May 2010 and 2011) are the lowest distribution within most areas in Kuwait. This finding is a good indication of two important notes:

Fig. 7.9 Average percentages of Chenopodiaceae pollen in dust. Summer (July–August 2010 and 2011)

Fig. 7.10 Average percentages of Compositae pollen in dust. Spring (April–May 2010 and 2011)

Fig. 7.11 Average percentages of Cyperaceae pollen in dust. Spring (April–May 2010 and 2011)



Cyperaceae pollen in dust predominantly originates from Cyperus conglomeratus, a native plant species in the region. It is one of the most extensive vegetation units in Kuwait, covering approximately 26% of the country. In spring 2010 and 2011, the abundant pollen families belonged to Cyperaceae (33.6% and 33.7%, respectively). Cyperus conglomeratus flourished in two major times:


The plant is found within mobile sand corridors and away from the preserved areas with dense vegetation. The dense pollen of Cyperus conglomeratus appears during wintertime as there are other, more palatable plant species for grazing animals. Therefore, Cyperus conglomeratus pollen's maximum counts were in areas such as Subiyah, Dibdibah, and Abdulli. The maximum counts of Cyperus conglomeratus in Salmiya could have originated from regional sources from dust storm trajectories that come from the coast (Fig. 7.11).


Cyperus conglomeratus flourished in summertime in May– July. The low counts for pollen of Cyperus conglomeratus during summer are evident as there are no other palatable plant species for grazing animals. Therefore, Cyperus conglomeratus is severely grazed by grazing animals (goats, sheep and camels), and this is reflected in the pollen counts, which were much lower than in winter. The maximum counts were in the same areas during winter, such as Subiyah, Um Qudayr, and Abdulli, which might indicate that Cyperus conglomeratus pollen is heavy compared with other native plant pollen and largely comes from local and nearby regional sources.

In summer 2010, the highest counts were from Chenopodiaceae (32.8%), followed by Leguminosae (23.2%), Cyperaceae (18.7%), and Gramineae (11.5%). In

Fig. 7.12 Average percentages of Cyperaceae pollen in dust. Summer (July–August 2010 and 2011)

Fig. 7.13 Average percentages of Gramineae/Poaceae pollen in dust. Spring (April–May 2010 and 2011)

summer 2011, a similar tendency is apparent, with nearly the same dominance percentage (Chenopodiaceae, 33%; Leguminosae, 24%; and Cyperaceae, 19.4%) (Fig. 7.12).


Gramineae/Poaceae is dominated in Kuwait by Stipagrostis species, such as plumosa, obtusa, drarii, and ciliata. It extends to the west and southwest of Kuwait, with a few clusters to the north and northwest. The Stipagrostietum map unit covers 39% of Kuwait, including huge areas in the desert environment, and presents densely in dust in areas such as Kabd, Liyah, Subiyah, and Um Qudayr, reaching up to 26.6 counts during spring. The Stipagrostis species flourishes from March until May. In spring 2010, the abundant pollen families belonged to Cyperaceae (33.6%), followed by Chenopodiaceae (24%), and Gramineae

(19.6%). The same was observed in spring 2011 with Gramineae (19.3%) (Fig. 7.13).


Gramineae/Poaceae is dominated in Kuwait by the Stipagrostis species, which are dominant from March to May. The Stipagrostis species during summer reached the maximum counts and were present only in preserved areas such as the border areas, Liyah, and Jal Al Zur, all of which are preserved areas. The maximum and minimum counts of Gramineae/Poaceae distribution were similar in spring, summer, and winter, the only difference being in the numbers of detection, as it was the highest in winter and spring but the lowest in summer. In summer 2010, the highest counts were for families of Chenopodiaceae (32.8%), followed by Leguminosae (23.2%), Cyperaceae (18.7%), and Fig. 7.14 Average percentages of Gramineae/Poaceae pollen in dust. Summer (July–August 2010 and 2011)

Fig. 7.15 Average percentages of Gramineae/Poaceae pollen in dust. Winter (January–February 2010 and 2011)

Gramineae (11.5%). In summer 2011, nearly the same dominance percentage occurred (Chenopodiaceae, 33%; Leguminosae, 24%; Cyperaceae, 19.4%; and Gramineae, 18.9%) (Fig. 7.14).


Gramineae/Poaceae dominated in most desert areas but was maximum in areas such as Liyah, Gudhi, and Kabd. The maximum and minimum counts of Gramineae/Poaceae distribution were similar in spring and summer, the only difference being the number of detections, as it was the highest in winter, when these plants cover huge areas in Kuwait and in upwind regional areas in Iraq. The maximum counts reached up to 12.78 during winter, even before the flourishing of the dominating plant species. In the winters of 2010 and 2011, Gramineae/Poaceae reached 7.6% and 10%, respectively, in counts (Fig. 7.15).


Leguminosae (Fabaceae) was the second most abundant family that flourished during autumn and spring. The highest distribution was recorded during fall 2009 and 2010 (up to 54%) in the extreme western side of the country, and the lowest pollen concentrations were recorded in the west of Kuwait (fall 2009), eastern Kuwait (winter 2010), and southern Kuwait (spring 2011 and summer 2011). The dominant genera in Kuwait are Acacia, Astragalus, Coronilla, Lotus, Medicago, Prosopis, Scorpiurus, Trigonella and Astragalus in Liyah, while Coronilla dominates in open, deteriorated desert, such as in Shegaya and Salmi. Chenopodiaceae and Leguminosae together comprise over 70% of the total pollen during fall. In spring 2010 and 2011, the Leguminosae pollen families had higher percentages, with 11.7% and 12%, respectively (Fig. 7.16).


Leguminosae (Fabaceae) had the highest pollen count in small areas in summer, extending from Abdulli to Liyah. As most of the native plant species within this family flourish during fall and spring, summer may also contain appreciable amounts of pollen. The lowest pollen concentrations were recorded in southern Kuwait (spring 2011 and summer 2011). Acacia, Astragalus, Coronilla, Lotus, Medicago, Prosopis, Scorpiurus, Trigonella, and Astragalus are the dominant

Fig. 7.16 Average percentages of Leguminosae pollen in dust. Spring (April–May 2010 and 2011)

Fig. 7.17 Average percentages of Leguminosae pollen in dust. Summer (July–August 2010 and 2011)

genera from this plant family and dominated in Abdulli, Shegaya, and Salmi. In summer and fall, Chenopodiaceae dominated, followed by Leguminosae. In summer 2010, the highest counts were of Chenopodiaceae (32.8%) and Leguminosae (23.2%). The same trend was observed in summer 2011, with nearly the same dominance percentage (Chenopodiaceae, 33%; Leguminosae, 24%) (Fig. 7.17).


Leguminosae (Fabaceae) in winter had a similar distribution to summer and springtime. The highest counts were in an area that extends from Abdulli to Liyah. As most of the native plant species within this family flourish during autumn and spring, summer may also contain appreciable amounts of pollen. The lowest pollen concentrations were recorded in the Liyah area (spring 2011 and summer 2011). The Acacia, Astragalus, Coronilla, Lotus, Medicago, Prosopis, Scorpiurus, and Trigonella. Astragalus species are the dominant genera in this plant family, and it is dominant in Wafra Farm, Shegaya, and Salmi. In winter 2010 and 2011, Chenopodiaceae dominated the counts (52% and 43%,

respectively), followed by Leguminosae (12.2% and 18.8%, respectively) (Fig. 7.18).


The Malvaceae family contains nearly 243 genera and at least 4,225 species of trees, shrubs, and herbs. Kuwait is home to three herbs from the Malvaceae family, namely Althaea ludwigii, Malva nicaeensis, and Malva parviflora. All the flowers bloom in April. During spring 2010 and 2011, the abundant pollen families belonging to Cyperaceae (33.6%) are followed by Chenopodiaceae (24%), Gramineae (19.6%), Leguminosae (11.7%), Plantaginaceae (4.4%), Malvaceae (2.1%), and Ephedraceae (1.2%). In spring 2011, the pollen distribution and abundance showed the same trend as in spring 2010, with an abundance of Cyperaceae (33.7%), followed by Chenopodiaceae (24.9%), Gramineae (19.3%), Leguminosae (12%), Plantaginaceae (3.2%), Malvaceae (1.9%), Ephedraceae (1.2%), and Brassicaceae (1.1%). In the map, above, Malvaceae pollen is absent from the northern Kuwait desert but appears with maximum counts in Dibdibah and Ratqah (Fig. 7.19).

Fig. 7.18 Average percentages of Leguminosae pollen in dust. Winter (January–February 2010 and 2011)

Fig. 7.20 Average percentages of Malvaceae pollen in dust. Autumn (October–November 2009 & 2010)


The three major herbs from the Malvaceae family present in the region are Althaea ludwigii, Malva nicaeensis, and Malva parviflora. The Malvaceae family contains about 243 genera and at least 4,225 species of trees, shrubs, and herbs. In Kuwait, All flowers bloom during April. In fall 2010, the highest pollen counts were of Chenopodiaceae (57%), followed by Leguminosae (22%), Plantaginaceae (7%), Malvaceae (7%), and Gramineae (6.5%). The distribution map for Malvaceae pollen during fall shows an abundance level around farms (Abdulli and Wafra Farms) and is still present in Salmiya, coming from regional sources from the coast (Fig. 7.20).


The Malvaceae three major herbs present in the region are Althaea ludwigii, Malva nicaeensis, and Malva parviflora. In summer 2010, the highest counts were of Chenopodiaceae (32.8%), followed by Leguminosae (23.2%), Cyperaceae (18.7%), Gramineae (11.5%), Plantaginaceae (4.3%), and Malvaceae (2.3%). The same trend was observed in summer 2011, with nearly the same dominance percentage (Chenopodiaceae, 33%; Leguminosae, 24%; Cyperaceae, 19.4%; Gramineae, 18.9%; Plantaginaceae, 3.5%; and Malvaceae, 1.8%). In the map, above, Malvaceae pollen appears with the maximum count in the northern Kuwait desert but is absent from urban areas Subiyah and Abdulli (Fig. 7.21).


Plantaginaceae pollens were majorly present in the pollen traps and originate primarily from Plantago species (amplexicaulis, boissieri, ciliata, coronopus, lanceolata, notate, ovata, and psammophila). The most-detected Plantaginaceae pollens were found in spring. In spring 2010 and 2011, the pollen families belonging to Plantaginaceae reached up to 4.4% and 3.2%, respectively. The pollen appeared only in preserved areas such as Sabiyah, Liyah, and Kabd (Fig. 7.22).

Fig. 7.21 Average percentages of Malvaceae pollen in dust. Summer (July–August 2010 and 2011)


Plantaginaceae pollen originates mainly from Plantago species (amplexicaulis, boissieri, ciliata, coronopus, lanceolata, notata, ovata, and psammophila). In summer 2010, the highest counts were recorded for Chenopodiaceae (32.8%), followed by Leguminosae (23.2%), Cyperaceae (18.7%), Gramineae (11.5%), and Plantaginaceae (4.3%). The same trend was observed in summer 2011, with nearly the same dominance percentage (Chenopodiaceae, 33%; Leguminosae, 24%; Cyperaceae, 19.4%; Gramineae, 18.9%; and Plantaginaceae, 3.5%). The distribution of Plantaginaceae pollen was similar to that in spring. The highest counts were around Sabah Al-Ahmed National Reserve (a preserved area) (Fig. 7.23).


Plantaginaceae pollens were majorly present in traps mainly containing Plantago species (amplexicaulis, boissieri, ciliata, coronopus, lanceolata, notata, ovata, and psammophila). In fall (October to November) 2010 and 2011, low pollen counts were observed for Plantaginaceae (7% and 5.7%, respectively). The lowest counts of Plantaginaceae were noted during fall, and it appeared only in preserved areas, such as Liyah, Kabd, and Shuaiba (Fig. 7.24).


The local flora are the main source of the pollen load, and the concentration depends on the amount of vegetation around each station, except for very low percentages (2–3%) of Pinaceae pollen recorded in the north and northwest of Kuwait, which can be interpreted as being transported by the dominant northwesterly winds from regional sources. The nearest pine trees on the regional scale are situated in northern Iraq and Syria, and in Lebanon and Turkey (Fig. 7.25).

Fig. 7.23 Average percentages of Plantaginaceae pollen in dust. Summer (July–August 2010 and 2011)

Fig. 7.24 Average percentages of Plantaginaceae pollen in dust. Autumn (October–November 2009 and 2010)

Fig. 7.25 Map showing the sites of Pinaceae pollen

# References


Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creative commons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.

# 8 Other Properties (BET Surface Area, Conductivity, Organic Matter, and pH)

Modi Ahmed and Khaliq Beg

#### Abstract

# Methods

# BET Surface Area

The BET surface area is a specific measurement of the area of the dust particle surface. BET surface area resolute BET through gas physical adsorption of the dust particle surface by calculating the mass of adsorbed gas corresponding to a monomolecular layer on the particle surface. The gas physical adsorption results from weak van der Waals forces between the adsorbent surface area of the tested dust particles and the adsorbed nitrogen gaseous molecules. The determination is frequently carried out at the temperature of liquid nitrogen. The mass of gas adsorbed can be determined by either a volumetric or continuous flow process. The measurement of the BET surface area for dust particles was made using a COULTER-SA 3100 (Fig 8.1).

• Brunauer, Emmett, and Teller (BET) test were applied to dust samples in which samples (BET) surface area is highly related to the roundness of dust particles. The higher angularity and low roundness of the dust particles show a higher (BET) surface area. The roundness is also related to the particle size distribution and mineralogical composition.


M. Ahmed (&) K. Beg

Crisis Descision Supports Program (CDS), Environment & Life Sciences Research Center (ELSRC), Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR), P.O. Box: 24885 Safat, 13109, Kuwait e-mail: mmahmed@kisr.edu.kw

K. Beg e-mail: krbeg@kisr.edu.kw

Fig. 8.1 COULTER-3100 for measuring the BET surface area for dust particles

# Electrical Conductivity

# pH

Electrical conductivity is a measurement that relates very well with the chemical and physical properties of dust samples. Electrical conductivity is the capability of a sample to transmit an electrical current, and it is normally expressed in units of deciSiemens per meter (dS/m). The electrical conductivity measurements can be expressed in milliSiemens per meter (mS/m) also, which is 100 times less than deciSiemens per meter.

The dust samples were mixed in 125 ml of distilled water. The mixture was shaken in an electrical shaker for one hour and then left to settle for one hour. The resulting suspension was used for pH determination (Fig 8.2).

Fig. 8.2 Conductivity and pH meter used for dust samples

# Organic Matter

The organic matter was measured using the ignition method, in which the dust sample was weighed, dried in an oven at 60 C for 24 h, weighed again, and then washed in a muffle furnace at 400 °C for four hours. The organic matter was calculated by using the difference of the initial weight and the final weight multiplied by 100/58. Organic matter % = organic carbon % 11/58.

# Conductivity

The BET surface area is highly related to the roundness of dust particles. The higher angularity and low roundness of the dust particles reveal a higher BET surface area. The roundness is also related to the particle size distribution and mineralogical composition. Dust samples with smaller size fractions and lower quartz percentages have higher values of BET surface area. The dust samples in the northeastern part of Kuwait and near the coastal area have higher BET surface areas, with values of more than 12 m<sup>2</sup> /g. This result is attributed to geographical reasons, as those areas with high BET surface area are close to the Mesopotamian Floodplain and Al-Ahwar areas in Iraq, as dust coming from those areas is low in quartz and high in carbonates, feldspars, clay, and heavy minerals. Furthermore, the dust samples in summertime are expected to have a low BET surface area compared with winter (Fig. 8.3).


Electrical conductivity (EC) is a measurement of the dissolved material associated with or attached to dust samples, which relates to the ability of the material to conduct an electrical current. More salt or evaporated minerals, such as halite, gypsum, and anhydrite, cause higher values of EC. High conductivity is present on Bubiyan Island and the southern sector of Kuwait, as most sabkhas are present. Sabkhas contain salt minerals that cause an increase in conductivity. The areas extending from Jirashan in the northwest, near the Iraqi border, to northern Kuwait Bay displayed minimum values of conductivity readings (Fig. 8.4).


Fig. 8.3 Surface area distribution of dust in Kuwait

Fig. 8.4 Conductivity area distribution for dust in Kuwait

# Organic Matter

Organic matter is measured with reference to the total weight percentage for the dust samples. The values were restricted, from 1.38% to about 9%. The highest percentages of dust values containing organic matter within the dust samples were in the northeastern part of Kuwait and around farms. The presence of high organic matter percentages in dust samples collected in the northeastern parts of Kuwait is attributed to the type of dust, which mostly originates from the Mesopotamian Floodplain. Lower percentages were in the west and northwest of Kuwait. Compared with other dust in the world, deposited dust in Kuwait can be classified as being rich in organic matter. Therefore, dust plays a major role in maintaining the ecological system in the region, and the organic matter in dust is essential, mainly to the marine environment (Fig. 8.5).


Fig. 8.5 Organic matter area distribution for dust in Kuwait

# pH

The dust is more basic than acidic. The variation in pH values is from 7.4 to 8.1. The highest values are present in three areas, namely Huwamilyah, Um Al-Qawatti, and Atraf, while the lowest are present in Jirashan, Shuaiba, Khur Fawaris, and Um Niqa.

These results might indicate that dust occurring in the northwest, from the Western Desert of Iraq, is more basic than the dust coming from other directions, mainly the Mesopotamian Foodplain, Iran, and Saudi sides. The pH level might be related to humidity, as Saudi source areas of dust are more humid (Fig. 8.6).


Fig. 8.6 Ph distribution for dust in Kuwait

Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.

# 9 Spectro Absorption

Safaa Al-Awadhi and Mustafa Al-Shemali

#### Abstract


S. Al-Awadhi (&)

e-mail: smawadhi@kisr.edu.kw

e-mail: mshamali@kisr.edu.kw

© The Author(s) 2021 A. Al-Dousari (ed.), Atlas of Fallen Dust in Kuwait, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66977-5\_9

Sun produces different types of radiation that travel through space to the earth, as well as to other planets in the solar system. The atmospheric layers protect the earth from much of this radiation. Some radiation penetrates the atmosphere to reach the earth, however, such as infrared, visible light, ultraviolet rays, and etc.

A small amount of solar radiation is essential for many chemical life reactions for humans; however, when animals and plants are exposed to high doses of radiation, this is harmful. For example, sunstroke occurs when humans are exposed to long periods of solar radiation, and it can cause death. In other cases, such exposure causes skin burns and cancer. Drying plants occur when plants are exposed to the sun for long periods, in addition to facing hot winds during the summer (Al-Enezi et al. 2014; Al-Dousari et al. 2016).

Dust helps to protect the earth by absorbing and reflecting some of the sun's radiation, which explains why, when a dust storm is heavy and lasts for a long period, the temperature is reduced. The absorbance of light depends on the constituent compounds of dust. The dust compound depends on the culture of the areas the carrier wind crosses. Although dust causes many problems, such as reduced vision sight and breathing issues (Al-Dousari et al. 2014; Subramaniam et al. 2015; Subramaniam and Al-Dousari 2014), it reduces the sun's heat and direct interaction with objects on earth. Below are maps that illustrate dust absorption of the sunlight during different seasons in Kuwait.

# Methodology

Ultraviolet–visible UV–VIS. The Varian Bio Cary 100 UV–VIS instrument was used to measure the spectrum of dust samples. First, the certified material's (Lab sphere SRS. 99–020) background was taken. Second, the dust samples were put in a cuvette (10 mm) and placed on the diffuse

Crisis Descision Supports Program (CDS), Environment and Life Sciences Research Center (ELSRC), Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR), P. O. Box. 24885 Kuwait City, Safat 13109, Kuwait

M. Al-Shemali

Environmental Pollution and Climate Program (EPCP), Environment and Life Sciences Research Center (ELSRC), Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR), Kuwait City, Kuwait

reflectance accessory. Finally, the measurement was made with respect to the reference. The UV–VIS spectra cover the regions from 900 to 190 nm, which include the near-infrared region, visible light regions, and ultraviolet regions. The data were analyzed using Microsoft Excel to extract the maximum absorption of light radiation frequency.

Furrier Transformer Mid-Infrared FT-MID. The Victor 22 BRUKER instrument was used for this experiment. First, the KBr powder was ground and transferred to the diffuse reflectance holder, then the powder was pressed with a flat plate. Second, the holder was placed inside the experiment accessory installed inside the instrument. Third, the background experiment was run on KBr. Fourth, a very small portion of dust was mixed with ground KBr powder. Finally, the mixture was transferred to the experiment holder and pressed to be measured against the KBr background spectrum. The spectra covered the normal MID-infrared region, from 4000 cm−<sup>1</sup> to 400 cm−<sup>1</sup> .

# UV Absorption Summer 2010

The ultraviolet light absorbed in summer varies throughout Kuwait. The dust shows a high absorption to UV light near the coast of Kuwait Bay (collector D22 in Kathma) and at Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collector D44 and D45). Along the border with Iraq, the absorption of UV light was very low at dust collector D25 and South Buffer zone D32 (Homa) and D33 (Ritqa). Similarly, the borderline with Saudi Arabia in the southeast border at collector D20 Wafra animal farm, D18 Ras Zur-Wafra, D16 Nuwaissieb, D27 Salmi border zone, and D28 Poultry mid-way Salmi road Abraq all displayed low absorption of UV. In general, the area near Kuwait Bay, which covers Kuwait City and Hawalli City, had a high absorption of UV. The absorbance rate began to reduce toward Jahra City in the north and Ahmadi in the south. The chemical content of the dust near Kuwait Bay has the ability in summer to absorb more UV light than the dust in areas farther away (Fig. 9.1).

Fig. 9.1 Dust absorption of ultraviolet light in summer 2010

# Violet Absorption Summer

The absorbed violet light in summer varies throughout Kuwait. The dust shows high absorption to violet light at Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collectors D44 and D45) and begins to reduce near the coast at Kuwait Bay (collector D22 in Kathma). On the border with Iraq, the absorption of violet light was very low at dust collector D25, the South Buffer zone, D32 Homa, and D33 Ritqa, and on the borderline with Saudi Arabia

in the southeast borders at collector D20 Wafra animal farm, D18 Ras Zur-Wafra, D16 Nuwaissieb, D27 Salmi border zone, D28 Poultry mid-way Salmi road Abraq. In general, the area near Kuwait Bay, which covers Kuwait City and Hawalli City, had high absorption of UV. This absorbance capacity begins to reduce toward Jahra City in the north and Ahmadi in the south. The chemical content of the dust near Kuwait Bay has the ability in summer to absorb more violet light than the dust in areas that are situated farther away (Fig. 9.2).

Fig. 9.2 Dust absorption of violet light in summer 2010

# Blue Absorption Summer

The blue light in absorbed summer varies throughout Kuwait. The dust shows high absorption of the blue light at Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collectors D44 and D45) and begins to reduce near the coast at Kuwait Bay (collector D22 in Kathma). On the border with Iraq, the absorption of blue light was very low at collector D25 South Buffer zone, D32 Homa, and D33 Ritqa, and along the border with Iraq. The southeast borders at collector D20 Wafra animal farm, D18 Ras Zur-Wafra, D16 Nuwaissieb, D27 Salmi border zone, D28 Poultry mid-way Salmi road Abraq all had low absorption of blue light also. In general, the area near Kuwait Bay, including Kuwait City and Hawalli, had high absorbance, which begins to reduce toward Jahra in the north and Ahmadi in the south. The chemical content of the dust near Kuwait Bay has the ability in summer to absorb more blue light in the dust than areas farther away (Fig. 9.3).

Fig. 9.3 Dust absorption of blue light in summer 2010

# Cyan Absorption Summer 2010

The cyan light absorbed in summer varies throughout Kuwait. The dust shows high absorption of cyan light at Sabah Al-Ahmad Natural Reserve (collectors D44 and D45), and it begins to reduce near the coastal side of Kuwait Bay (collector D22 in Kathma). On the border with Iraq, the absorption of cyan light was very low at collector D25 South Buffer zone, D32 Homa, and D33 Ritqa. The same tendency is apparent on the borderline with Saudi Arabia along southeast borders at collector D20 Wafra animal farm, D18 Ras Zur-Wafra, D16 Nuwaissieb, D27 Salmi border zone, and D28 Poultry mid-way Salmi road Abraq. In general, the area near Kuwait Bay, which covers Kuwait City and Hawalli, had a high absorbance of cyan light. The absorbance capacity starts to reduce toward Jahra City in north and Ahmadi in the south. The chemical content of the dust near Kuwait Bay has the ability to absorb more cyan light in the summer than in areas that are farther away (Fig. 9.4).

Fig. 9.4 Dust absorption of cyan light in summer 2010

# Green Absorption Summer 2010

The green light absorbed in summer varies throughout Kuwait. The dust shows a high absorption of green light at Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collectors D44 and D45) and begins to reduce near the coastal side Kuwait Bay (collector D22 in Kathma). On the border with Iraq, the absorption of green light was very low at collector D25 South Buffer zone, D32 Homa, and D33 Ritqa, as well as on the borderline with Saudi Arabia along the southeast borders at collector D20 Wafra animal farm, D18 Ras Zur-Wafra, D16 Nuwaissieb, D27 Salmi border zone, and D28 Poultry mid-way Salmi road Abraq. In general, the area near Kuwait Bay, which covers Kuwait City and Hawalli, had a high absorbance of green light. The absorbance capacity starts to reduce toward Jahra City in north and Ahmadi in the south. The chemical content of the dust near Kuwait Bay has the ability to absorb more green light in the summer than in areas that are farther away (Fig. 9.5).

Fig. 9.5 Dust absorption of green light in summer 2010

The yellow light absorbed in summer varies throughout Kuwait. The dust particles show a high absorption of yellow light at Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collectors D44 and D45) that begins to reduce near the coastal side Kuwait Bay (collector D22 in Kathma). On the border with Iraq, the absorption of yellow light was very low at collector D25 South Buffer zone, D32 Homa, and D33 Ritqa, as well as on the borderline with Saudi Arabia along the southeast borders at collector D20 Wafra animal farm, D18 Ras Zur-Wafra, D16 Nuwaissieb, D27 Salmi border zone, D28 Poultry mid-way Salmi road Abraq. In general, the area near Kuwait Bay, which covers Kuwait City and Hawalli, had a high absorbance of yellow light. The absorbance capacity starts to reduce toward Jahra City in north and Ahmadi in the south. The chemical content of the dust near Kuwait Bay has the ability to absorb more yellow light in the summer than in areas that are farther away (Fig. 9.6).

Fig. 9.6 Dust absorption of yellow light in summer 2010

# Orange Absorption Summer 2010

The orange light absorbed in summer varies throughout Kuwait. The dust shows high absorption of orange light at Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collectors D44 and D45) and it begins to reduce near the coastal side of Kuwait Bay (collector D22 in Kathma). On the border with Iraq, the absorption of orange light was very low at collector D25 South Buffer zone, D32 Homa, and D33 Ritqa, as well as on the borderline with Saudi Arabia along the southeast borders at collector D20 Wafra animal farm, D18 Ras Zur-Wafra, D16 Nuwaissieb, D27 Salmi border zone, and D28 Poultry mid-way Salmi road Abraq. In general, the area near Kuwait Bay, which covers Kuwait City and Hawalli, had a high absorbance of orange light. The absorbance capacity starts to reduce toward Jahra City in north and Ahmadi in the south. The chemical content of the dust near Kuwait Bay has the ability to absorb more orange light in the summer than in areas that are farther away (Fig. 9.7).

Fig. 9.7 Dust absorption of orange light in summer 2010

# Red Absorption Summer 2010

The red light absorbed in summer varies throughout Kuwait. The dust shows high absorption of red light at Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collectors D44 and D45) and begins to reduce near the coastal side Kuwait Bay (collector D22 in Kathma). On the border with Iraq, the absorption of red light was very low at collector D25 South Buffer zone, D32 Homa, and D33 Ritqa, as well as on borderline with Saudi Arabia along the southeast borders at collector D20 Wafra animal farm, D18 Ras Zur-Wafra, D16 Nuwaissieb, D27 Salmi border zone, and D28 Poultry mid-way Salmi road Abraq. In general, the area near Kuwait Bay, which covers Kuwait City and Hawalli, had a high absorbance of red light. The absorbance capacity starts to reduce toward Jahra City in north and Ahmadi in the south. The chemical content of the dust near Kuwait Bay has the ability to absorb more red light in the summer than in areas that are farther away (Fig. 9.8).

Fig. 9.8 Dust absorption of red light in summer 2010

# Infrared Absorption Summer 2010

The absorbed infrared light in summer varies throughout Kuwait. The dust shows high absorption of infrared light at Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collectors D44 and D45) and begins to reduce near the coastal side Kuwait Bay (collector D22 in Kathma). On the border with Iraq, the absorption of infrared light was very low at collector D25 South Buffer zone, D32 Homa, and D33 Ritqa, as well as on the borderline with Saudi Arabia along the southeast borders at collector D20 Wafra animal farm, D18 Ras Zur-Wafra, D16 Nuwaissieb, D27 Salmi border zone, and D28 Poultry mid-way Salmi road Abraq. In general, the area near Kuwait Bay, which covers Kuwait City and Hawalli, had a high absorbance of infrared light. The absorbance capacity starts to reduce toward Jahra City in north and Ahmadi in the south. The chemical content of the dust near Kuwait Bay has the ability to absorb more infrared light in the summer than in areas that are farther away (Fig. 9.9).

Fig. 9.9 Dust absorption of infrared light in summer 2010

# UV Absorption Fall 2010

The ultraviolet light absorbed in autumn varies throughout Kuwait. The dust shows high absorption of ultraviolet light at Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collector D44), at Sabiya close to the Bubiyan bridge (collector D10), near Saudi Arabia at Um Jethathil (collector D41), at Nuwaissieb (collector D16), and at Wafra animal farm (collector D20). The absorption of ultraviolet light was very low at Abdulia-Managish Road (collector D2), at Poultry mid-way Salmi road (collector D28), and at Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collector D42). In fall, the ultraviolet light absorption varies from high to low in Kuwait Bay. The southern borderline with Saudi Arabia (collector D19) and Salmi border zone (collector D27) had medium ultraviolet light absorbance, while the northern part of Kuwait at Ritqa (collector D33) had mid-high absorption (Fig. 9.10).

Fig. 9.10 Dust absorption of ultraviolet light in fall 2010

# Violet Absorption Fall 2010

The absorbed violet light in fall varies throughout Kuwait. The dust shows high absorption of violet light at Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collector D44), at Sabiya close to the Bubiyan bridge (collector D10), near Saudi Arabia at Um Jethathil (collector D41), at Nuwaissieb (collector D16), and at Wafra animal farm (collector D20). The absorption of the violet light was very low at Abdulia-Managish Road (collector D2), at Poultry mid-way Salmi road (collector D28), and at Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collector D42). The southern borderline with Saudi Arabia (collector D19) and Salmi border zone (collector D27) had medium violet light absorbance, while the northern part of Kuwait at Ritqa (collector D33) had mid-high absorption (Fig. 9.11).

Fig. 9.11 Dust absorption of violet light in fall 2010

# Blue Absorption Fall 2010

The blue light absorbed in fall varies throughout Kuwait. The dust shows a high absorption of the blue light at Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collector D44), at Sabiya close to the Bubiyan bridge (collector D10), near Saudi Arabia at Um Jethathil (collector D41), at Nuwaissieb (collector D16), and at Wafra animal farm (collector D20). The absorption of blue light was very low at Abdulia-Managish Road (collector D2), at Poultry mid-way Salmi road (collector D28), and at Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collector D42). In fall, blue light absorption varies from high to low in Kuwait Bay. The southern borderline with Saudi Arabia (collector D19) and Salmi border zone (collector D27) had medium blue light absorbance, while the northern part of Kuwait at Ritqa (collector D33) had mid-high absorption (Fig. 9.12).

Fig. 9.12 Dust absorption of blue light in fall 2010

# Cyan Absorption Fall 2010

The cyan light absorbed in fall varies throughout Kuwait. The dust shows high absorption of cyan light at Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collector D44), at Sabiya close to the Bubiyan bridge (collector D10), near Saudi Arabia at Um Jethathil (collector D41), at Nuwaissieb (collector D16), and at Wafra animal farm (collector D20). The absorption of cyan light was very low at Abdulia-Managish Road (collector D2), at Poultry mid-way Salmi road (collector D28), and at Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collector D42). In fall, cyan light absorption varies from high to low in Kuwait Bay. The southern borderline with Saudi Arabia (collector D19) and Salmi border zone (collector D27) had medium cyan light absorbance, while the northern part of Kuwait at Ritqa (collector D33) had mid-high absorption (Fig. 9.13).

Fig. 9.13 Dust absorption of cyan light in fall 2010

# Green Absorption Fall 2010

The green absorbed light in fall varies throughout Kuwait. The dust shows a high absorption of green light at Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collector D44), at Sabiya close to the Bubiyan bridge (collector D10), near Saudi Arabia at Um Jethathil (collector D41), at Nuwaissieb (collector D16), and at Wafra animal farm (collector D20). The absorption of green light was very low at Abdulia-Managish Road (collector D2), at Poultry mid-way Salmi road (collector D28), and at Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collector D42). In fall, green light absorption varies from high to low in Kuwait Bay. The southern borderline with Saudi Arabia (collector D19) and Salmi border zone (collector D27) had medium green light absorbance, while the northern part of Kuwait at Ritqa (collector D33) had mid-high absorption (Fig. 9.14).

Fig. 9.14 Dust absorption of green light in fall 2010

# Yellow Absorption Fall 2010

The yellow light absorbed in fall varies throughout Kuwait. The dust shows a high absorption of yellow light at Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collector D44), at Sabiya (close to the Bubiyan bridge) (collector D10), near Saudi Arabia at Um Jethathil (D41), at Nuwaisssieb (collector D16), and at Wafra animal farm (collector D20). The absorption of yellow light was very low at Abdalia-Managish Road (collector D2), at Poultry mid-way Salmi road (collector D28), and at Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collector D42). In fall, yellow light absorption varies from high to low in Kuwait Bay. The southern borderline with Saudi Arabia (collector D19) and Salmi border zone (collector D27) had medium yellow light absorbance, while the northern part of Kuwait at Ritqa (collector D33) had mid-high absorption (Fig. 9.15).

Fig. 9.15 Dust absorption of yellow light in fall 2010

# Orange Absorption Fall 2010

The orange light absorbed in fall varies throughout Kuwait. The dust shows high absorption of orange light at Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collector D44), at Sabiya close to the Bubiyan bridge (collector D10), near Saudi Arabia at Um Jethathil (collector D41), at Nuwaissieb (collector D16), and at Wafra animal farm (collector D20). The absorption of orange light was very low at Abdulia-Managish Road (collector D2), at Poultry mid-way Salmi road (collector D28), and at Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collector D42). In fall, orange light absorption varied from high to low in Kuwait Bay. The southern borderline with Saudi Arabia (collector D19) and Salmi border zone (collector D27) had medium orange light absorbance, while the northern part of Kuwait at Ritqa (collector D33) had mid-high absorption (Fig. 9.16).

Fig. 9.16 Dust absorption of orange light in fall 2010

# Red Absorption Fall 2010

The red light absorbed in fall varies throughout Kuwait. The dust shows high absorption of red light in Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collector D44), at Sabiya close to the Bubiyan bridge (collector D10), near Saudi Arabia at Um Jethathil (collector D41), at Nuwaissieb (collector D16), and at Wafra animal farm (collector D20). The absorption of red light was very low at Abdulia-Managish Road (collector D2), at Poultry mid-way Salmi road (collector D28), and at Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collector D42). In fall, red-light absorption varies from high to low in Kuwait Bay. The southern borderline with Saudi Arabia (collector D19) and Salmi border zone (collector D27) had medium red-light absorbance, while the northern part of Kuwait at Ritqa (collector D33) had mid-high absorption (Fig. 9.17).

Fig. 9.17 Dust absorption of red light in fall 2010

# IR Absorption Fall 2010

The infrared light absorbed in fall varies throughout Kuwait. The dust shows high absorption of infrared light at Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collector D44), at Sabiya close to the Bubiyan bridge (collector D10), near Saudi Arabia at Um Jethathil (collector D41), at Nuwaissieb (collector D16), and at Wafra animal farm (collector D20). The absorption of infrared light was very low at Abdulia-Managish Road (collector D2), at Poultry mid-way Salmi road (collector D28), and at Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collector D42). In fall, infrared light absorption varied from high to low in Kuwait Bay. The southern borderline with Saudi Arabia (collector D19) and Salmi border zone (collector D27) had medium infrared light absorbance, while the northern part of Kuwait at Ritqa (collector D33) had mid-high absorption (Fig. 9.18).

Fig. 9.18 Dust absorption of infrared light in fall 2010

# UV Absorption Winter 2010

The absorbed ultraviolet light by dust particles in winter varies throughout Kuwait. The dust shows high absorption of ultraviolet light on the northeastern borders with Saudi Arabia at Abraq (collector D29). The dust shows mid-high absorption of ultraviolet light at various places in Kuwait, including the southern Kuwait-Saudi Arabia border zone (collector D38), as well as on Um Bubiyan Island (collector D46), and the southeast area of Kuwait (collectors 41 and 28). The dust shows medium absorption of ultraviolet light in various places in Kuwait, including Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collectors D42 and D44), in the KISR main building location in Kuwait Bay (collector D13), in Kathma (collector D22), in the northern area in Um Qasir/Bahaith (collector D30), and along the western borders with Saudi Arabia (collector D37). However, the dust shows a low absorption of ultraviolet light in many areas, such as the northern side of Kuwait Bay at Bahra coastal zone (collector D12), in the KISR petroleum center in Ahmadi in the east (collector 15), along the northern borders with Iraq at Ritqa (collector D33), at Homa (collector D32), at gate Sabriya oil field (collector D23), at Kabd station (collector D1), at Abdulia-Managish Road (collector D2), and along the western borders with Saudi Arabia at the Salmi border zone (collector 27) (Fig. 9.19).

Fig. 9.19 Dust absorption of ultraviolet light in winter 2010

# Violet Absorption Winter 2010

The violet light absorbed by dust particles in winter varies throughout Kuwait. The dust shows high absorption of violet light on the northeastern borders with Saudi Arabia at Abraq (collector D29). The dust shows mid-high absorption of violet light at various places in Kuwait, including the southern Kuwait-Saudi Arabia border zone (collector D38), on Bubiyan Island (collector D46), and at the mid-western area of Kuwait (collectors 28 and 41). The dust shows medium absorption of violet light at various places, including Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collectors D42 and D44), in the KISR's main building location in Kuwait Bay (collector D13), in Kathma (collector D22), and in the northern area in Um Qasir/Bahaith (collector D30). However, the dust shows low absorption of violet light in the north of Kuwait Bay at the Bahra coastal zone (collector D12), in the KISR's petroleum center in Ahmadi (collector 15), on the northern borders with Iraq at Ritqa (collector D33), at Homa (collector D32), at gate Sabriya oil field (collector D23), along the western borders with Saudi Arabia (collector D37), at Kabd station (collector D1), at Abdulia-Managish Road (collector D2), and at the western border with Saudi Arabia at Salmi border zone (collector 27) (Fig. 9.20).

Fig. 9.20 Dust absorption of violet light in winter 2010

# Blue Absorption Winter 2010

The blue light absorbed by dust particles in winter varies throughout Kuwait. The dust shows high absorption of blue light on the northeastern border with Saudi Arabia at Abraq (collector D29). The dust shows mid-high absorption of blue light at various places in Kuwait, including the southern Kuwait-Saudi Arabia border zone (collector D38), on Bubiyan Island (collector D46), and at the mid-western area of Kuwait (collectors 28). The dust shows medium absorption of blue light across various places, including Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collectors D42 and D44), in the KISR's main building location in Kuwait Bay (collector D13), in Kathma (collector D22), and in the northern area in Um Qasir/Bahaith (collector D30). However, the dust shows low absorption of blue light in the KISR's petroleum center in Ahmadi (collector 15), on the northern borders with Iraq at Ritqa (collector D33), at Homa (collector D32), at gate Sabriya oil field (collector D23), at Kabd station (collector D1), and at the western borders with Saudi Arabia at Salmi border zone (collector 27). Finally, the dust shows very low absorption at three main areas in Kuwait: north of Kuwait Bay at Bahra coastal zone (collector D12), along the western border with Saudi Arabia (collector D37), and at Abdulia-Managish Road (collector D2) (Fig. 9.21).

Fig. 9.21 Dust absorption of blue light in winter 2010

# Cyan Absorption Winter 2010

The cyan light absorbed by dust particles in winter varies throughout the State of Kuwait. The dust shows high absorption of cyan light on the northeastern border with Saudi Arabia at Abraq (collector D29). The dust shows mid-high absorption of cyan light at various places in Kuwait, including the southern Kuwait-Saudi Arabia border zone (collector D38), on Bubiyan Island (collector D46), and at the mid-western area of Kuwait (collectors 28). The dust shows a medium absorption of cyan light at various other places, including Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collectors D42 and D44), at the KISR's main building location in Kuwait Bay (collector D13), in Kathma (collector D22), and in the northern area in Um Qasir/Bahaith (collector D30). However, the dust shows low absorption of cyan light in the KISR's petroleum center in Ahmadi (collector 15), on the northern border with Iraq at Ritqa (collector D33), at Homa (collector D32), at gate Sabriya oil field (collector D23), at Kabd station (collector D1), and at the western border with Saudi Arabia at Salmi border zone (collector 27). The dust shows very low absorption at three main locations in Kuwait: north of Kuwait Bay at Bahra coastal zone (collector D12), on the western border with Saudi Arabia (collector D37), and at Abdulia-Managish Road (collector D2) (Fig. 9.22).

Fig. 9.22 Dust absorption of cyan light in winter 2010

# Green Absorption Winter 2010

The green light absorbed by dust particles in winter varies throughout the State of Kuwait. The dust shows high absorption of green light on the northeastern border with Saudi Arabia at Abraq (collector D29). The dust shows mid-high absorption of green light at various places in Kuwait, including the southern Kuwait-Saudi Arabia border zone (collector D38), on Bubiyan Island (collector D46), and at the mid-western area of Kuwait (collectors 28). The dust shows medium absorption of green light at various other places, including Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collectors D42 and D44), at the KISR's main building location in Kuwait Bay (collector D13), in Kathma (collector D22), and in the northern area in Um Qasir/Bahaith (collector D30). However, the dust shows a low absorption of green light in the KISR's petroleum center in Ahmadi (collector 15), on the northern border with Iraq at Ritqa (collector D33), at Homa (collector D32), at gate Sabriya oil field (collector D23), and at Kabd station (collector D1). The dust shows very low absorption of green light across four main locations in Kuwait: north of Kuwait Bay at Bahra coastal zone (collector D12), on the western border with Saudi Arabia (collector D37), at Abdulia-Managish Road (collector D2), and at the western border with Saudi Arabia at Salmi border zone (collector 27) (Fig. 9.23).

Fig. 9.23 Dust absorption of green light in winter 2010

# Yellow Absorption Winter 2010

The yellow light absorbed by dust particles in winter varies throughout Kuwait. The dust shows high absorption of yellow light on the northeastern border with Saudi Arabia at Abraq (collector D29). The dust shows mid-high absorption of yellow light at various places in Kuwait, including the southern Kuwait-Saudi Arabia border zone (collector D38), on Bubiyan Island (collector D46), and at the mid-western area of Kuwait (collectors 28). The dust shows medium absorption of yellow light at various other places, including Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collectors D42 and D44), in the KISR's main building location in Kuwait Bay (collector D13), in Kathma (collector D22), and in the northern area in Um Qasir/Bahaith (collector D30). However, the dust shows low absorption of yellow light in the KISR's petroleum center in Ahmadi (collector 15), on the northern border with Iraq at Ritqa (collector D33), at Homa (collector D32), at gate Sabriya oil field (collector D23), and at Kabd station (collector D1). The dust shows very low absorption of yellow light at four main locations in Kuwait: north of Kuwait Bay at Bahra coastal zone (collector D12), on the western border with Saudi Arabia (collector D37), at Abdulia-Managish Road (collector D2), and on the western border with Saudi Arabia at Salmi border zone (collector 27) (Fig. 9.24).

Fig. 9.24 Dust absorption of yellow light in winter 2010

# Orange Absorption Winter 2010

The orange light absorbed by dust particles in winter varies throughout the State of Kuwait. The dust shows high absorption of orange light on the northeastern border with Saudi Arabia at Abraq (collector D29). The dust shows mid-high absorption of orange light at various places in Kuwait, including the southern Kuwait-Saudi Arabia border zone (collector D38), on Bubiyan Island (collector D46), and at the mid-western area of Kuwait (collectors 28). The dust shows medium absorption of orange light at various other places, including Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collectors D42 and D44), in the KISR's main building location in Kuwait Bay (collector D13), in Kathma (collector D22), and in the northern area in Um Qasir/Bahaith (collector D30). However, dust shows low absorption of orange light in the KISR's petroleum center in Ahmadi (collector 15), on the northern border with Iraq at Ritqa (collector D33), at Homa (collector D32), at gate Sabriya oil field (collector D23), and at Kabd station (collector D1). The dust shows very low absorption of orange light across four main locations in Kuwait: north of Kuwait Bay at Bahra coastal zone (collector D12), in the western border with Saudi Arabia (collector D37), at Abdulia-Managish Road (collector D2), and on Bubyan Island (collector 47) (Fig. 9.25).

Fig. 9.25 Dust absorption of orange light in winter 2010

# Red Absorption Winter 2010

The red light absorbed by dust particles in winter varies throughout Kuwait. The dust shows high absorption of red light on the northeastern border with Saudi Arabia at Abraq (collector D29). The dust shows mid-high absorption of red light across various places of Kuwait, including the southern Kuwait-Saudi Arabia border zone (collector D38), on Bubiyan Island (collector D46), and at the mid-western area of Kuwait (collectors 28). The dust shows medium absorption of red light across various other places, including Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collectors D42 and D44), in the KISR's main building location in Kuwait Bay (collector D13), in Kathma (collector D22), and in the northern area in Um Qasir/Bahaith (collector D30). However, the dust shows a low absorption of red light at the KISR's petroleum center in Ahmadi (collector 15), on the northern border with Iraq at Ritqa (collector D33), at Homa (collector D32), at gate Sabriya oil field (collector D23), and at Kabd station (collector D1). The dust shows very low absorption of red light across four main locations in Kuwait: north of Kuwait Bay at Bahra coastal zone (collector D12), on the western border with Saudi Arabia (collector D37), at Abdulia-Managish Road (collector D2), and on Bubiyan Island (collector 47) (Fig. 9.26).

Fig. 9.26 Dust absorption of red light in winter 2010

# IR Absorption Winter 2010

The red light absorbed by dust particles in winter varies throughout the State of Kuwait. The dust shows high absorption of red light across three main locations: the northeastern border with Saudi Arabia at Abraq (collector D29), Abdulia-Managish Road (collector D2), and at the border with Saudi Arabia at Um Jethathil (collector D41). The dust shows mid-high absorption of red light at various places in Kuwait, including Kathma (collector D22), north of Kuwait Bay at Bahra coastal zone (collector D12), and the western border with Saudi Arabia (collector D37). The dust shows medium absorption of red light at various other places, including the southern Kuwait-Saudi Arabia border zone (collector D38), on Bubiyan Island (collector D46), at the mid-western area of Kuwait (collectors 28), at Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collectors D42 and D44), and at the KISR's main building location in Kuwait Bay (collector D13). However, the dust shows low absorption of red light at the northern area in Um Qasir/Bahaith (collector D30), on the northern border with Iraq at Ritqa (collector D33), and at Homa (collector D32). Finally, the dust shows very low absorption of red light across six main locations in Kuwait: on Bubiyan Island (collector 47), at gate Sabriya oil field (collector D23), at Kabd station (collector D1), in the KISR's petroleum center in Ahmadi (collector 15), and in the southern part of Kuwait (collector D20) (Fig. 9.27).

Fig. 9.27 Dust absorption of infrared light in winter 2010

# UV Absorption Spring 2010

The absorbed ultraviolet light in spring varies throughout Kuwait. The absorption of ultraviolet light was high across four main locations in Kuwait that are represented by dark violet on the above map. These locations are in the north at Um Nega area (collector D31) and at North Um Qawati (collector D34), and along the northwestern border with Iraq (collector 35), as well as the southern border with Saudi Arabia (collector D39).

The dust shows mid-high absorption across various areas in Kuwait. These areas are North Ahmad Al-Jaber Air Base (collector D4), at Mutla (collector D5), at North Mutla (collector D6), at Raudhatain gate (D8), at North Sabiya (collector D11), at Ras Zur-Wafra ( collector D18), et al. Wafra (collector D19), at Kathma (collector D22), at Salmi border zone (collector D27), at Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collectors D42 and D44), at Bubiyan-Northeast (collector D46), at Ritqa (collector D33), at Huwaimiliyah (collector D35), and at the Kuwait-Saudi Arabia border zone (collector D39).

The dust shows medium absorption of ultraviolet at the western side of Burgan oil field (collector D3), at Liyah (collector D7), et al. Wafra (collector D19),at Wafra animal farm (collector D20), at Um Qawati (collector D24), at Poultry mid-way Salmi road (collector D38), and at the Kuwait-Saudi Arabia border zone (collector D40).

The dust shows low absorption of ultraviolet light in five locations in Kuwait. These locations are Abdulia-Managish Road (collector D2), the western side of Burgan oil field (collector D3), the Kuwait-Saudi Arabia border zone (collector D36), Um Jethathil (collector D41), and Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collector D43). Finally, the dust shows very low absorption of ultraviolet light across five various locations in Kuwait: the South Buffer zone at (collector D25), at Poultry mid-way Salmi road (collector D28), at the KISR's Salmiya station (Collector D14), at the KISR's main building Shuwaikh (Collector D13), and at Um Qasir/Bahaith (collector D30) (Fig. 9.28).

Fig. 9.28 Dust absorption of ultraviolet light in spring 2010

# Violet Absorption Spring 2010

The violet light absorbed in spring varies throughout Kuwait. The absorption of violet light was high at four main locations in Kuwait represented by dark violet on the above map. These locations are in the north at Um Nega (collector D31) and at North Um Qawati (collector D34), and along the northwestern border with Iraq (collector 35), as well as the southern border with Saudi Arabia (collector D39).

The dust shows mid-high absorption across various areas in Kuwait. These areas are North Ahmad Al-Jaber Air Base (collector D4), Mutla (collector D5), North Mutla (collector D6), Raudhatain gate (D8), North Sabiya (collector D11), Ras Zur-Wafra (collector D18), Al Wafra (collector D19), Kathma (collector D22), Salmi border zone (collector D27), Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collectors D42 and D44), Bubiyan-Northeast (collector D46), Ritqa (collector D33), Huwaimiliyah (collector D35), and the Kuwait-Saudi Arabia border zone (collector D39).

The dust shows medium absorption of violet at the western side of Burgan oil field (collector D3), at Liyah (collector D7), at Wafra animal farm (collector D20), at Poultry mid-way Salmi road (collector D38), and at the Kuwait-Saudi Arabia border zone (collector D40).

The dust shows low absorption of violet light across four locations in Kuwait: the western side of Burgan oil field (collector D3), Um Jethathil (collector D41), the KISR's Salmiya station (Collector D14), Um Qasir/Bahaith (collector D30), and Um Qawati (collector D24).

The dust shows very low absorption of violet lights across seven various locations in Kuwait, represented by very light violet on the map. These locations are the Abdulia-Managish Road (collector D2), the Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collector D43), the South Buffer zone (collector D25), the Poultry mid-way Salmi road (collector D28), the Kuwait-Saudi Arabia border zone (collector D36), Al Wafra (collector D19), and the KISR's main building Shuwaikh (Collector D13) (Fig. 9.29).

Fig. 9.29 Dust absorption of violet light in spring 2010

# Blue Absorption Spring 2010

The absorbed blue light in spring varies throughout Kuwait. The absorption of blue light was high at four main locations in Kuwait represented by dark blue on the above map. These locations are in the north at Um Nega (collector D31) and at North Um Qawati (collector D34), and along the northwestern border with Iraq (collector 35), as well as the southern border with Saudi Arabia (collector D39).

The dust shows mid-high absorption various areas across Kuwait. These areas are North Ahmad Al-Jaber Air Base (collector D4), Mutla (collector D5), North Mutla (collector D6), Raudhatain gate (D8), North Sabiya (collector D11), Ras Zur-Wafra (collector D18), Al Wafra (collector D19), Kathma (collector D22), Salmi border zone (collector D27), Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collectors D42 and D44), Bubiyan-Northeast (collector D46), Ritqa (collector D33), Huwaimiliyah (collector D35), and the Kuwait-Saudi Arabia border zone (collector D39).

The dust shows medium absorption of blue at the western side of Burgan oil field (collector D3), at Liyah (collector D7), at Wafra animal farm (collector D20), at Poultry mid-way Salmi road (collector D38), and at the Kuwait-Saudi Arabia border zone (collector D40).

The dust shows low absorption of blue light across five locations in Kuwait: the western side of Burgan oil field (collector D3), Um Jethathil (collector D41), the KISR's Salmiya station (Collector D14), Um Qasir/Bahaith (collector D30), and the northeastern border with Saudi Arabia at Abraq (collector D29).

kThe dust shows very low absorption of blue lights across eight locations in Kuwait, represented by very light blue on the map. These locations are the Abdulia-Managish Road (collector D2), Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collector D43), Um Qawati (collector D24), the South Buffer zone (collector D25), Poultry mid-way Salmi road (collector D28), the Kuwait-Saudi Arabia border zone (collector D36), Al Wafra (collector D19), and the KISR's main building Shuwaikh (Collector D13) (Fig. 9.30).

Fig. 9.30 Dust absorption of blue light in spring 2010

# Cyan Absorption Spring 2010

The cyan light absorbed in spring varies throughout Kuwait. The absorption of cyan light is high at four main locations in Kuwait, represented by dark cyan on the above map. These locations are in the north at Um Nega (collector D31) and North Um Qawati (collector D34), and along the northwestern border with Iraq (collector 35), as well as the southern border with Saudi Arabia (collector D39).

The dust shows mid-high absorption in various areas across Kuwait. These areas are North Ahmad Al-Jaber Air Base (collector D4), Mutla (collector D5), North Mutla (collector D6), Raudhatain gate (D8), North Sabiya (collector D11), Ras Zur-Wafra ( collector D18), Al Wafra (collector D19), Kathma (collector D22), Salmi border zone (collector D27), Sabah Al-Ahmad Natural Reserve (collectors D42 and D44), Bubiyan-Northeast (collector D46), Ritqa (collector D33), Huwaimiliyah (collector D35), and the Kuwait-Saudi Arabia border zone (collector D39).

The dust shows medium absorption of cyan at the western side of Burgan oil field (collector D3), at Liyah (collector D7), at Wafra animal farm (collector D20), at Poultry mid-way Salmi road (collector D38), and at the Kuwait-Saudi Arabia border zone (collector D40).

The dust shows low absorption of cyan light across five locations in Kuwait: the western side of Burgan oil field (collector D3), Um Jethathil (collector D41), the KISR's Salmiya station (Collector D14), Um Qasir/Bahaith (collector D30), and the northeastern border with Saudi Arabia at Abraq (collector D29).

The dust shows very low absorption of cyan light across eight various locations in Kuwait, represented by the very light cyan on the map. These locations are the Abdulia-Managish Road (collector D2), Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collector D43), Um Qawati (collector D24), the South Buffer zone (collector D25), Poultry mid-way Salmi road (collector D28), the Kuwait-Saudi Arabia border zone (collector D36), Al Wafra (collector D19), and the KISR's main building Shuwaikh (collector D13) (Fig. 9.31).

Fig. 9.31 Dust absorption of cyan light in spring 2010

# Green Absorption Spring 2010

The green light absorbed in spring varies throughout Kuwait. The absorption of green light is high across four main locations in Kuwait, represented by dark green on the above map. These locations are in the north at Um Nega (collector D31) and North Um Qawati (collector D34), and along the northwestern border with Iraq (collector 35), as well as the southern border with Saudi Arabia (collector D39).

The dust shows mid-high absorption across various areas in Kuwait. These areas are North Ahmad Al-Jaber Air Base (collector D4), Mutla (collector D5), North Mutla (collector D6), Raudhatain gate (D8), North Sabiya (collector D11), Ras Zur-Wafra ( collector D18), Al Wafra (collector D19), Kathma (collector D22), Salmi border zone (collector D27), Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collectors D42 and D44), Bubiyan-Northeast (collector D46), Ritqa (collector D33), Huwaimiliyah (collector D35), and the Kuwait-Saudi Arabia border zone (collector D39).

The dust shows medium absorption of green at the western side of Burgan oil field (collector D3), at Liyah (collector D7), at Wafra animal farm (collector D20), at Poultry mid-way Salmi road (collector D38), and at the Kuwait-Saudi Arabia border zone (collector D40).

The dust shows low absorption of green light in five locations in Kuwait: the western side of Burgan oil field (collector D3), Um Jethathil (collector D41), the KISR's Salmiya station (Collector D14), Um Qasir/Bahaith (collector D30), and the northeastern border with Saudi Arabia at Abraq (collector D29).

The dust shows very low absorption of green lights across eight locations in Kuwait, represented by very light green on the map. These locations are Abdulia-Managish Road (collector D2), Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collector D43), Um Qawati (collector D24), the South Buffer zone (collector D25), Poultry mid-way Salmi road (collector D28), the Kuwait-Saudi Arabia border zone (collector D36), Al Wafra (collector D19), and the KISR's main building Shuwaikh (collector D13) (Fig. 9.32).

Fig. 9.32 Dust absorption of green light in spring 2010

# Yellow Absorption Spring 2010

The yellow light absorbed in spring varies throughout Kuwait. The absorption of yellow light was high at four main locations in Kuwait, represented by dark yellow on the above map. These locations are in the north at Um Nega (collector D31) and North Um Qawati (collector D34), and along the northwestern border with Iraq (collector 35), as well as the southern border with Saudi Arabia (collector D39).

The dust shows mid-high absorption in various areas across the State of Kuwait. These areas are North Ahmad Al-Jaber Air Base (collector D4), Mutla (collector D5), North Mutla (collector D6), Raudhatain gate (D8), North Sabiya (collector D11), Ras Zur-Wafra (collector D18), Al Wafra (collector D19), Kathma (collector D22), Salmi border zone (collector D27), Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collectors D42 and D44), Bubiyan-Northeast (collector D46), Ritqa (collector D33), Huwaimiliyah (collector D35), and the Kuwait-Saudi Arabia border zone (collector D39).

The dust shows medium absorption of yellow at the western side of Burgan oil field (collector D3), at Liyah (collector D7), at Wafra animal farm (collector D20), at Poultry mid-way Salmi road (collector D38), and at the Kuwait-Saudi Arabia border zone (collector D40).

The dust shows low absorption of yellow light across five locations in Kuwait: the western side of Burgan oil field (collector D3), Um Jethathil (collector D41), the KISR's Salmiya station (collector D14), Um Qasir/Bahaith (collector D30), and the northeastern border with Saudi Arabia at Abraq (collector D29).

The dust shows very low absorption of yellow light across eight locations in Kuwait, represented by the very light yellow on the map. These locations are Abdulia-Managish Road (collector D2), Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collector D43), Um Qawati (collector D24), the South Buffer zone (collector D25), Poultry mid-way Salmi road (collector D28), the Kuwait-Saudi Arabia border zone (collector D36), Al Wafra (collector D19), and the KISR's main building Shuwaikh (collector D13) (Fig. 9.33).

Fig. 9.33 Dust absorption of yellow light in spring 2010

# Orange Absorption Spring 2010

The orange light absorbed in spring varies throughout Kuwait. The absorption of orange light was high across four main locations in Kuwait, represented by dark orange on the above map. These locations are the in north at Um Nega (collector D31) and North Um Qawati (collector D34), and along the northwestern border with Iraq (collector 35), as well as the southern border with Saudi Arabia (collector D39).

The dust shows mid-high absorption across various areas in Kuwait. These areas are North Ahmad Al-Jaber Air Base (collector D4), Mutla (collector D5), North Mutla (collector D6), Raudhatain gate (D8), North Sabiya (collector D11), Ras Zur-Wafra (collector D18), et al. Wafra (collector D19), at Kathma (collector D22), at Salmi border zone (collector D27), at Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collectors D42 and D44), at Bubiyan-Northeast (collector D46), at Ritqa (collector D33), at Huwaimiliyah (collector D35), and at the Kuwait-Saudi Arabia border zone (collector D39).

The dust shows medium absorption of orange at the western side of Burgan oil field (collector D3), at Liyah (collector D7), at Wafra animal farm (collector D20), at Poultry mid-way Salmi road (collector D38), and at the Kuwait-Saudi Arabia border zone (collector D40).

The dust shows low absorption of orange light in five locations in Kuwait: the western side of Burgan oil field (collector D3), Um Jethathil (collector D41), the KISR's Salmiya station (collector D14), Um Qasir/Bahaith at (collector D30), and the northeastern border with Saudi Arabia at Abraq (collector D29).

The dust shows very low absorption of orange light across eight locations in Kuwait, represented by the very light orange on the map. These locations are Abdulia-Managish Road (collector D2), Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collector D43), Um Qawati (collector D24), the South Buffer zone (collector D25), Poultry mid-way Salmi road (collector D28), the Kuwait-Saudi Arabia border zone (collector D36), Al Wafra (collector D19), and the KISR's main building Shuwaikh (collector D13) (Fig. 9.34).

Fig. 9.34 Dust absorption of orange light in spring 2010

# Red Absorption Spring 2010

The red light absorbed in spring varies throughout Kuwait. The absorption of red light was high at four main locations in Kuwait, represented by dark red on the above map. These locations are in the north at Um Nega (collector D31) and North Um Qawati (collector D34), and along the northwestern border with Iraq (collector 35), as well as the southern border with Saudi Arabia (collector D39).

The dust shows mid-high absorption in various areas across the State of Kuwait. These areas are North Ahmad Al-Jaber Air Base (collector D4), Mutla (collector D5), North Mutla (collector D6), Raudhatain gate (D8), North Sabiya (collector D11), Ras Zur-Wafra (collector D18), Al Wafra (collector D19), Kathma (collector D22), Salmi border zone (collector D27), Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collectors D42 and D44), Bubiyan-Northeast (collector D46), Ritqa (collector D33), Huwaimiliyah (collector D35), and the Kuwait-Saudi Arabia border zone (collector D39).

The dust shows medium absorption of red at Liyah (collector D7), at Wafra animal farm (collector D20), at the southern border with Saudi Arabia (collector D38), and at the Kuwait-Saudi Arabia border zone (collectors D40 and 41).

The dust shows low absorption of red light in five locations in Kuwait: the western side of Burgan oil field (collector D3), Um Jethathil (collector D41), the KISR's Salmiya station (Collector D14), the northeastern border with Saudi Arabia at Abraq (collector D29), the Kuwait-Saudi Arabia border zone (collector D36), Al Wafra (collector D19), Poultry mid-way Salmi road (collector D28), and the South Buffer zone (collector D25).

The dust shows very low absorption of red light across five locations in Kuwait, represented by the very light red on the map. These locations are Abdulia-Managish Road (collector D2), Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collector D43), Um Qawati (collector D24), Um Qasir/Bahaith (collector D30), and the KISR's main building Shuwaikh (collector D13) (Fig. 9.35).

Fig. 9.35 Dust absorption of red light in spring 2010

# Infrared Absorption Spring 2010

The absorbed red light in spring varies throughout Kuwait. The dust shows high absorption at five main locations across Kuwait, represented by the dark red on the above map. These locations are at Um Nega (collector D31), at the South Buffer zone (collector D25), at Raudhatain gate (D8), at Um Jethathil (collector D41), and at Salmi border zone (collector D27).

The dust absorbs mid-high infrared light at several locations: Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collector D43), Poultry mid-way Salmi road (collector D38), Ras Zur-Wafra (collector D18), the western side of Burgan oil field (collector D3), Ritqa (collector D33), North Um Qawati (collector D34), Huwaimiliyah (collector D35), the Kuwait-Saudi Arabia border zone (collector D39), North Ahmad Al-Jaber Air Base (collector D4), Mutla (collector D5), North Mutla (collector D6), North Sabiya (collector D11), Al Wafra (collector D19), Kathma (collector D22), Salmi border zone (collector D27), Sabah Al-Ahmad Nature Reserve (collectors D42 and D44), and Bubiyan-Northeast (collector D46).

The dust shows medium absorption at the western side of Burgan oil field (collector D3), at Liyah (collector D7), et al. Wafra (collector D19),at Wafra animal farm (collector D20), at Um Qawati (collector D24), at Um Qasir/Bahaith (collector D30), and at the Kuwait-Saudi Arabia border zone (collector D40).

The dust shows a very low absorption at four main locations, represented by the light red on the map in Fig. 9.36. These locations are Abdulia- Managish Road (collector D2), Poultry mid-way Salmi road (collector D28), the Kuwait-Saudi Arabia border zone (collector D36), and the KISR's main building location in Kuwait Bay (collector D13).

Fig. 9.36 Dust absorption of infrared light in spring 2010

From the UV–VIS maps of absorption in different seasons across Kuwait, it is clear that the dust absorption for the UV–VIS light radiation varies from month to month and season to season. The Fourier transformer infrared data clarify these phenomena in the following section.

# Furrier Transformer Infrared (FT-IR (MID)

The collectors showed that the chemical functional group, chemical bounding, and chemical elements vary for the same collectors in different seasons. The dust for the same collector contained the same functional groups; however, it contained different structures, such as the silicon group. In December, the D3 collector had Si2O only; whereas, in September, the same collector had more silicon functional groups, such as Si–OH, Si–F, and Si2O. Some chemicals appeared during some seasons and disappeared during others, such as the nitrite functional group R–O–N=O, which was found in the December collector; however, it disappeared from the March and September collectors.

From the study of the collectors for the four seasons, the dust chemicals in the collectors changed depending on the weather conditions and the nature of the area. Dust content that has a nitrogen compound, such as the amide, the amine, or the nitro, appeared in a few collectors. The dust mostly contained silicon (Si) compounds, hydrocarbons (CH), sulfur (sulphur) (S), phosphorus (P), and halogens (F, Cl, Br, I). The three tables for the D-3 collector (Tables 9.1, 9.2, and 9.3) show how the chemical compound varies from season to season. Seasonal Color Spectrophotometric Variations of Dust Samples within Kuwait, April 2014.


# Table 9.2 Sample D-3



# Conclusion

From the UV–VIS study and FT-IR study, it is clear that the absorbance of UV–VIS light varies from season to season and from month to month. The difference in absorbance is related to the change in the chemical content of dust. The FT-IR data are very important for revealing the different chemical content of dust and for quickly scanning what possible compounds can be found in dust particles when further analysis is required.

# References

Al-Dousari A.M., N. Al-Dousari, A. Ramadhan, M. Ahmed, A. Aba. 2014. Assessments of dust fallout within Kuwait. ProScience- 1st international conference on atmospheric dust (DUST-14). 1: 149– 155. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14644/dust.2014.024


Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.

# Summary

The satellite images show seven major source areas of dust storm trajectories in the world:


This present study indicates that each zone of global dust storm trajectories has unique dust fallout characteristics regarding depositional rates, grain size, mineralogy, particle surface area, and variations between upwind and downwind. Dust fallout rates tend to diminish downwind, except in Zone IV, where the midpoint of the dust storm trajectory shows a higher amount of dust than the borders.

On average, mud particles represent 74% of dust samples, while the rest is formed by sand particles (26%). The average samples of the world's fallen dust are negatively skewed, trimodal, with a dominance of silt size fractions (61%). The grain-size trimodality might indicate multiple sources. All of the world's dust storm trajectories are fining downwind due to rapid deposition of sand size fractions. Zone IV is an exceptional case, in which the main trajectory passes from the Western Desert of Iraq through the Mesopotamian Floodplain, loading the wind with mud size fractions (97%), toward Kuwait (desert area), where fallen dust contains 37% sand particles (UNEP 2016; Al-Dousari et al. 2017; Al-Dousari and Al-Hazza 2013; Al-Ghadban et al. 2008).

The mineralogical and surface area comparison between collected dust in this study and mud particles from surface sediments surrounding the traps shows large variations, which indicate that the mud size particles predominantly originated from regional and global sources (Figs. 3 and 4). Other researchers support the long-distance origination of mud particles. Most of the exposed bedrock in Hawaii (USA) is basalt with little or no quartz, but the overlaying soil contains considerable quartz, which is believed to be blown as dust particles from North America across the Pacific Ocean (Péwé et al. 1981). Long-distance traveling dust is commonly composed of very fine particles, with the predominant sizes between 0.068 and 0.02 mm (Walker and Costing 1971).

Regarding the dust in Kuwait, the northwestern, western, and northern winds play major roles in the origin of dust storms to the study area. Regional areas represent the dominant sources of dust fallout, while local sources contribute appreciable amounts. The very fine and fine sand particles originate from local sources as they move in the form of saltation or short-term suspension for a short distance, representing 37% of the average dust fallout percentages in Kuwait. There is a trend of fining in Mean size for dust particles toward the east and the northeast. Carbonates and quartz are the major components of dust in Kuwait, and feldspars are found in appreciable amounts. Other minerals in the dust are gypsum, anhydrite, bassanite, and heavy minerals. The muddy playas, depressions, sabkhas, and intertidal zone (Bubiyan and Warba islands) are the major sources of local dust. Natural vegetation plays a major role in minimizing and reducing fallen dust. Open desert areas show an increase in the quantities of dust fallout by at least two-thirds more than in the National Park in Kuwait. Further studies should concentrate on other aerosols associated with dust (pollen, organic matter, hydrocarbons) rather than dust-control measures.

The continuous monitored pollen and deposited dust in the State of Kuwait from August 2009 to August 2011 lead us to conclude that local and close regional flora are the main source of the pollen load. Except for very low percentages (2–3%) of Pinaceae pollen recorded in the north and north-west borders of Kuwait with Iraq (D9, 25, 27, 29, and 30), the remainder could be interpreted as being transported by the northwesterly wind from long-distance regional sources. The closest pine trees in the regional scale are in northern Iraq and Syria, Lebanon, and Turkey. It can also be concluded that areas that experience low depositional dust have a higher concentration of pollen. The years 2009–2010 experienced a high concentration of pollen but lower in the deposited dust compared with 2010–2011. This finding indicates the decrease in native vegetation in the regional and local areas, which caused the increase in deposited dust rates. The pollen counts can be taken as a good indicator of vegetation density deterioration rate. The pollen distribution reached its maximum peak at the end and the beginning of the of rainy season in spring (April–May) and fall (October– November), which indicates that the pollen concentration is highly related to climatic conditions and the distribution of drainage system (wadis). Spring marked the highest pollen distribution because of the flowering of a great number of Chenopodiaceae, Gramineae (Poaceae), Cyperaceae, Leguminosae, and Plantaginaceae. Summer (July–August) and winter (January–February) recorded a graph with a lower distribution of pollen due to the severe drought, dust storms, winter wind, and rainfall. Winter had the lowest pollen count. Chenopodiaceae are the most common trigger of allergies in Kuwait, but no correlations so far were noted between pollen and the number of asthma patients in Kuwait (Al-Dousari et al. 2016, 2018b).

Tamarix aphyllae, Prosopis juliflora and Moringa pterigosperma were found to be effective in controlling the eolian processes. The average sand accumulation around each tree within green belts is equivalent to 10 m<sup>3</sup> , while it is equivalent to 1.92 m<sup>3</sup> for the dominant native plants in Kuwait. Although the trees are much larger in size, some native plants display better capability in controlling eolian sediments. The maximum volumes of sand accumulation were observed around Nitraria retusa (21.9 m<sup>3</sup> ), Lycium shawii (15.5 m<sup>3</sup> ), and Haloxylon salicornium (14.5 m<sup>3</sup> ), which is significant to consider them the most efficient native plants in controlling eolian sediments. Correspondingly, each native plant has its distinctive morphological properties (Ahmed et al. 2016; Ahmed and Al-Dousari 2013; Al-Awadhi and Al-Dousari 2013; Al-Dousari et al. 2018b, c). The green belts and native plants were found to be effective solutions in controlling eolian accumulations, and they have the potential to reduce costs. Therefore, green belts and native plants are recommended as potential future applications to control the sand encroachment problem and resuspended dust particles.

# Index

# A

Absorption, 6, 207–244 Abu Dhabi, 7 Afghanistan, 247 AOD, 6–10 Arabia, 1, 14–20, 24, 27, 28, 31, 32, 36, 43, 47, 208, 209, 211–243, 247 Arabian, 1, 13–40, 100 Australia, 47, 247

# B

Bahrain, 7, 30, 247 Baluchistan, 247 BET surface area, 202 Bubiyan, 14, 22, 23, 48, 49, 57, 59, 61, 63, 65, 67, 69, 71, 73, 75, 77, 79, 81, 83, 86, 89, 96, 98, 99, 101, 105–107, 109–119, 121–127, 145, 148, 152, 154, 157, 158, 160, 162, 163, 165, 168, 170, 171, 173, 202–204, 217–243, 247

# C

Calcite, 96, 99, 102, 103, 108, 114 Carbonates, 13–18, 20–23, 25–35, 43, 96, 97, 99, 102–109, 111, 114–117, 177, 202, 247 China, 247 Clay, 13–18, 20–23, 25–33, 43, 47, 57, 58, 77, 78, 81, 98, 104, 110, 114–117, 202 Conductivity, 199–203

# D

Dolomite, 96, 99, 103, 105, 111, 117

# E

Egypt, 247 Element, 1, 2, 47, 121, 122, 124, 126, 127, 244 Ethiopia, 247

#### F

Feldspar, 18, 31, 96, 100, 106, 112, 114, 117, 118, 122, 124, 202, 247

G Gulf, 1, 7, 13–40, 100, 142

### H

Heavy minerals, 35, 122, 124, 126, 127, 202, 247

# I

Image, 1, 2, 5, 6, 12–14, 16–43, 48, 58, 181, 247 Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP), 121, 122, 124–127 Iraq-Iran, 18

# J

Jordan, 24, 247

# K

Kurtosis, 85, 89, 90 Kuwait, 1–3, 5–7, 10, 12–43, 47–49, 59, 61, 63, 65, 67, 69, 71, 73, 75, 77, 79, 81, 83, 86, 87, 89, 91, 96–105, 108–119, 121–139, 141–146, 148–150, 152, 154, 155, 157–163, 165, 167, 168, 170, 171, 173, 177–184, 186, 187, 189, 190, 192, 194, 202–205, 207–244, 247, 248

#### L

Leguminosae, 177, 179, 180, 182, 184, 186, 187, 189–192, 194, 248 Libya, 247

### M

Malvaceae, 177, 180, 182, 190–193 Mean, 2, 4–6, 10, 17, 57, 85, 86, 178, 247 Mesopotamian, 1, 14–19, 21–23, 25, 28, 29, 31–33, 43, 57, 126, 182, 202–204, 247 Mineral, 14–23, 25–33, 43, 47, 95–119, 122, 124, 202, 247 Morocco, 247

N NASA, 6, 7

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2021 A. Al-Dousari (ed.), Atlas of Fallen Dust in Kuwait, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66977-5

### O

Organic matter, 15–33, 43, 199, 201, 203, 204, 247

### P

Pakistan, 247 Palestine, 24, 247 Parameters, 2, 6, 48, 84–87, 89, 91, 146, 168, 180 Particle, 1, 6, 7, 9–13, 15–35, 43, 47–49, 57–59, 61, 63, 65, 67, 69, 71, 73, 75, 77, 79, 81, 83, 85–87, 95, 107, 121, 177–179, 199, 200, 202, 207, 213, 226–234, 246–248 Particulate, 1, 6, 7, 10 Particulate Matter (PM), 1, 5–13, 47 pH, 199, 200, 201, 204, 205 Pollen, 1, 2, 20, 27, 47, 177–195, 247, 248

# Q

Quartz, 13–21, 25, 26, 28–35, 43, 58, 96, 97, 99, 101, 102, 104, 107, 112–114, 117–119, 202, 247

# R

Radionuclide, 1, 141–146, 148–150, 152, 154, 155, 157–160, 162, 163, 165, 168, 170, 171, 173 Relative humidity, 3 Remote sensing, 1, 3, 6

# S

Sahara, 14, 15, 24, 247 Satellite, 1, 5, 6, 11–14, 28, 41–43, 48, 247 Saudi, 1, 14, 47, 204, 208, 209, 211–243 Size, 1, 6, 7, 10–26, 29–34, 43, 47–49, 57–86, 95, 114, 115, 117, 121, 199, 202, 247, 248 Skewness, 85, 91, 92 Spectro, 207 Standard deviation, 85 Statistical, 2, 10, 58, 85–87, 89, 91 Sudan, 247

# T

Taklimakan, 14, 15, 247 Temperature, 5, 6, 10, 178, 207

#### W

Warba, 3, 13, 14, 20, 29, 30, 40, 43, 48, 98, 102, 178, 180, 199, 202, 211, 236, 239, 247